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Sunday, 30 November 2008

Dia atau Dia (^_^)

(^_^) Dia atau Dia (^_^)

Cerita yang diawali dengan bertemunya seorang pujangga, dengan seorang yang dikaguminya. Suatu saat dimana dalam hati seseorang pujangga, terlintas suatu pemikiran. Bahwasanya si pujangga tersebut ingin sekali bertemu dengan orang yang selalu dipuji – pujinya. Si pujangga tidak dapat mengungkapkan perasaannya tersebut kepada seseorang yang dipuji – pujinya. Sampai suatu ketika ketika di pagi hari yang cerah, si pujangga pergi ke sesuatu tempat. Disana ternyata tanpa diduga – duga, dia bertemu dengan seseorang yang dicintainya tersebut. Dialah si Dia, si pujangga tidak dapat berkata, berbuat maupun bertindak sebagaimana seorang pujangga. Rasa hati semua tercampur aduk dalam benak hatinya, dengan rasa hati yang tidak stabil itu. Si pujangga tersebut menghampiri Si Dia, dan berkata kepada si Dia. “Assalamu’ alaikum !”sapanya saat berada di depan si dia.
Sambil tersenyum, si dia menjawab, “Wa’alaikumsalam. Maaf, Ada keperluan apa ya?”. Si Pujangga berkata “Maaf mengganggu, saya cuma mau bilang “I just wanna I love you”.

Mv cerpen ini masih dalam tahap pembuatan. So, ceritanya sedikit tidak nyambung. Maaf ya para readers sekalian.


Brian Purli abrianto

Monday, 20 October 2008

Reproduksi Bakteri


Reproduksi Bakteri
Reproduksi Bakteri ialah perkembang-biakan bakteri. Bakteri mengadakan pembiakan dengan dua cara, yaitu secara aseksual dan seksual. Pembiakan secara aseksual dilakukan dengan pembelahan, sedangkan pembiakan seksual dilakukan dengan cara transformasi, transduksi , dan konjugasi. Namun, proses pembiakan cara seksual berbeda dengan eukariota lainnya. Sebab, dalam proses pembiakan tersebut tidak ada penyatuan inti sel sebagaimana biasanya pada eukarion, yang terjadi hanya berupa pertukaran materi genetika ( rekombinasi genetik ). Berikut ini beberapa cara pembiakan bakteri.

Vegatatif/Aseksual

Pembelahan Biner

Pembelahan Biner dapat dibagi atas tiga fase, yaitu sebagai berikut.
1)Fase pertama, sitoplasma terbelah oleh sekat yang tumbuh tegak lurus.
2)Fase kedua, tumbuhnya sekat akan diikuti oleh dinding melintang.
3)Fase ketiga, terpisahnya kedua sel anak yang identik. Ada bakteri yang segera berpisah dan terlepas sama sekali. Sebaliknya, ada pula bakteri yang tetap bergandengan setelah pembelahan, bakteri demikian merupakan bentuk koloni.
Pada keadaan normal bakteri dapat mengadakan pembelahan setiap 20 menit sekali. Jika pembelahan berlangsung satu jam, maka akan dihasilkan delapan anakan sel.

Para Seksual

1)Transformasi

Merupakan pemindahan sebagian materi genetika dari satu bakteri ke bakteri lain. Pada proses transformasi tersebut ADN bebas sel bakteri donor akan mengganti sebagian dari sel bakteri penerima, tetapi tidak terjadi melalui kontak langsung. Cara transformasi ini hanya terjadi pada beberapa spesies saja, . Contohnya : Streptococcus pnemoniaeu, Haemophillus, Bacillus, Neisseria, dan Pseudomonas. Diguga transformasi ini merupakan cara bakteri menularkan sifatnya ke bakteri lain. Misalnya pada bakteri Pneumococci yang menyebabkan Pneumonia dan pada bakteri patogen yang semula tidak kebal antibiotik dapat berubah menjadi kebal antibiotik karena transformasi
Proses ini pertama kali ditemukan oleh Frederick Grifith tahun 1982.

2)Transduksi

Merupakan pemindahan sebagian materi genetik dari sel bakteri satu ke bakteri lain dengan perantaraan virus. Selama transduksi, kepingan ganda ADN dipisahkan dari sel bakteri donor ke sel bakteri penerima oleh bakteriofage (virus bakteri). Bila virus – virus baru sudah terbentuk dan akhirnya menyebabkan lisis pada bakteri, bakteriofage yang nonvirulen (menimbulakan respon lisogen) memindahkan ADN dan bersatu dengan ADN inangnya, Virus dapat menyambungkan materi genetiknya ke DNA bakteri dan membentuk profag. Ketika terbentuk virus baru, di dalam DNA virus sering terbawa sepenggal DNA bakteri yang diinfeksinya. Virus yang terbentuk memiliki dua macam DNA yang dikenal dengan partikel transduksi (transducing particle). Proses inilah yang dinamakan Transduksi. Cara ini dikemukakan oleh Norton Zinder dan Jashua Lederberg pada tahun 1952.

3)Konjugasi

Merupakan pemindahan sebagian materi genetika dari satu bakteri ke bakteri lain melalui suatu kontak langsung. Artinya, terjadi transfer ADN dari sel bakteri donor ke sel bakteri penerima melalui ujung pilus. Ujung pilus akan melekat pada sel peneima dan ADN dipindahkan melalui pilus tersebut. Kemampuan sel donor memindahkan ADN dikontrol oleh faktor pemindahan ( transfer faktor = faktor F )

Thursday, 9 October 2008

Biarlah, semua terjadi



I hope in this year, I can very glad in my live.
Thank you to come in my Blog...

Wednesday, 17 September 2008

Web Browser Baru dari Google

Google Chrome
Download
Features
Why we built a browser
Web developers
Privacy policy

Open source
A fresh take on the browser

At Google, we spend much of our time working inside a browser. We search, chat, email and collaborate in a browser. And like all of you, in our spare time, we shop, bank, read news and keep in touch with friends - all using a browser. People are spending an increasing amount of time online, and they're doing things never imagined when the web first appeared about 15 years ago.

Since we spend so much time online, we began seriously thinking about what kind of browser could exist if you started from scratch and built on the best elements out there. We realized that the web had evolved from mainly simple text pages to rich, interactive applications and that we needed to completely rethink the browser. What we really needed was not just a browser, but also a modern platform for web pages and applications, and that's what we set out to build.

So today we're releasing the beta version of a new open source browser: Google Chrome.

On the surface, we designed a browser window that is streamlined and simple. To most people, it isn't the browser that matters. It's only a tool to run the important stuff - the pages, sites and applications that make up the web. Like the classic Google homepage, Google Chrome is clean and fast. It gets out of your way and gets you where you want to go.

Under the hood, we were able to build the foundation of a browser that runs today's complex web applications much better . By keeping each tab in an isolated "sandbox", we were able to prevent one tab from crashing another and provide improved protection from rogue sites. We improved speed and responsiveness across the board. We also built V8, a more powerful JavaScript engine, to power the next generation of web applications that aren't even possible in today's browsers.

This is just the beginning - Google Chrome is far from done. We've released this beta for Windows to start the broader discussion and hear from you as quickly as possible. We're hard at work building versions for Mac and Linux too, and we'll continue to make it even faster and more robust.

We owe a great debt to many open source projects, and we're committed to continuing on their path. We've used components from Apple's WebKit and Mozilla's Firefox, among others - and in that spirit, we are making all of our code open source as well. We hope to collaborate with the entire community to help drive the web forward.

The web gets better with more options and innovation. Google Chrome is another option, and we hope it contributes to making the web even better.

But enough from us. The best test of Google Chrome is to try it yourself.

Download

Sunday, 3 August 2008

Cabang - cabang Biologi

Virologi : Ilmu yang mempelajari tentang virus dan semua segi kehidupannya.
Mikrobiologi : Ilmu yang mempelajari tentang mikroorganisme dan semua segi kehidupannya.
Bakteriologi : Ilmu yang mempelajari tentang bakteri dan semua segi kehidupannya.
Algalogi : Ilmu yang mempelajari tentang alga dan semua segi kehidupannya.
Mykologi : Ilmu yang mempelajari tentang jamur dan semua segi kehidupannya.
Helmintologi : Ilmu yang mempelajari tentang cacing dan semua segi kehidupannya.
Parasitologi : Ilmu yang mempelajari tentang parasit dan semua segi kehidupannya.
Botani : Ilmu yang mempelajari tentang tumbuhan dan semua segi kehidupannya.
Zoologi : Ilmu yang mempelajari tentang hewan dan semua segi kehidupannya.
Entomologi : Ilmu yang mempelajari tentang serangga dan semua segi kehidupannya.
Ornitologi : Ilmu yang mempelajari tentang burung dan semua segi kehidupannya.
Sitologi : Ilmu yang mempelajari tentang sel dan struktur maupun fungsi sel.
Histologi : Ilmu yang mempelajari tentang jaringan tubuh organisme dan struktur maupun fungsi jaringan.
Morfologi : Ilmu yang mempelajari tentang bentuk luar tubuh makhluk hidup.
Anatomi : Ilmu yang mempelajari tentang struktur alat – alat dalam tubuh manusia dan hewan dengan cara melakukan pembedahan.
Fisiologi : Ilmu yang mempelajari tentang fungsi alat – alat tubuh makhluk hidup.
Embriologi : Ilmu yang mempelajari tentang embrio dan perkembangannya menjadi zigot.
Cardiologi : Ilmu yang mempelajari tentang jantung dan struktur maupun fungsi jantung manusia.
Hematologi : Ilmu yang mempelajari tentang darah dan struktur maupun fungsi darah.
Neurologi : Ilmu yang mempelajari tentang saraf dan struktur maupun fungsi saraf.
Endokrinologi : Ilmu yang mempelajari tentang fungsi kelenjar endokrin.
Taksonomi : Ilmu yang mempelajari tentang cara – cara penggolongan mahluk hidup.
Ekologi : Ilmu yang mempelajari tentang hubungan timbal balik antara makhluk hidup dengan lingkungannya.
Evolusi : Ilmu yang mempelajari tentang kehidupan makhluk hidup dari masa ke masa.
Palaentologi : Ilmu yang mempelajari tentang kehidupan hewan dan tumbuhan.
Genetika : Ilmu yang mempelajari tentang pewarisan sifat menurun dari induk ke keturunannya.
Hygiene : Ilmu yang mempelajari tentang pemeliharan kesehatan makhluk hidup.
Sanitasi : Ilmu yang mempelajari tentang pengelolaan kesehatan melalui kebersihan lingkungan.
Patologi : Ilmu yang mempelajari tentang penyakit dan pengaruhnya terhadap kehidupan organisme
Agronomi : Ilmu yang mempelajari tentang tata guna tanah, tanaman dan penjelasan tanah.
Geologi : Ilmu yang mempelajari tentang susunan tata bumi dan bekas – bekas kehidupan yang terdapat di dalam lapisan – lapisan bumi.
Biokimia : Ilmu yang mempelajari tentang proses – proses kimiawi yang berlangsung di dalam tubuh organisme.
Biotekhnologi : Ilmu yang mempelajari tentang penggunaan proses biologi untuk penyediaan dan jasa bagi manusia

Wednesday, 30 July 2008

Berita Bagus Untuk Anda....^-^

Anda diberi kesempatan oleh Brian34 untuk dapat menaruh iklan diblognya Brian34..

Jika Anda Berminat. Kirim aja Iklan Anda dalam bentuk format Gambar dan kirim lewat EMAIL

Alamatnya : Brianpurli.abrianto@yahoo.co.id

Buruan....jangan tunggu lagi...

Wednesday, 9 July 2008

Apa yang Anda ketahui ?

Banyak kata yang harus di Ucapkan banyak hati yang perlu di perbaiki. Jika kalau saya ada salah Mohon maaf Sebesar-besar nya

Wednesday, 2 July 2008

JADWAL KEGIATAN PSB

JADWAL KEGIATAN


No Jenis Kegiatan
TK/SD/SDLB
SMP/SMPLB
SMA/SMLB
SMK
1 Pendaftaran Seleksi 3,4,5 Juli 2008 24,25,26 Juni 2008 24,25,26 Juni 2008
24,25,26 Juni 2008
-Tes minat dan bakat
-Wawancara
2 Seleksi - 28 Juni 2008 28 Juni 2008 28 Juni 2008
3 Koreksi hasil seleksi - 30 Juni, 1-2 Juli 2008 30 Juni, 1-2 Juli 2008 30 Juni, 1-2 Juli 2008
4 Penyampaian hasil seleksi - 3 Juli 2008 3 Juli 2008 3 Juli 2008
5 Pemilihan sekolah/program - 4-5 Juli 2008 4-5 Juli 2008 4-5 Juli 2008
6 Pengumuman tahap I 7 Juli 2008 7 Juli 2008 7 Juli 2008 7 Juli 2008
7 Daftar ulang I 8,9,10 Juli 2008 8,9,10 Juli 2008 8,9,10 Juli 2008 8,9,10 Juli 2008
8 Pengumuman tahap II - 11 Juli 2008 11 Juli 2008 11 Juli 2008
9 Daftar ulang II - 11 – 12 Juli 2008 11 – 12 Juli 2008 11 – 12 Juli 2008
10 Permulaan Tahun Pelajaran Baru 14 Juli 2008 14 Juli 2008 14 Juli 2008 14 Juli 2008
11 Pelaksanaan MOS - 14,15,16 Juli 2008 14,15,16 Juli 2008 14,15,16 Juli 2008

WAKTU KEGIATAN PSB SIdoarjo

WAKTU KEGIATAN


Pendafataran Ujian Tulis
Tanggal : 24, 25 dan 26 Juni 2008
Pukul : 08.00 s/d 13.00 WIB
Pendaftaran dan Pelaksanaan Test Kesehatan, Psikotest dan Wawancara (Khusus untuk SMKN)
Tanggal : 24, 25 dan 26 Juni 2008
Pukul : 08.00 s/d 13.00 WIB
Pelaksanaan Ujian Tulis
Tanggal : 28 Juni 2008
Pukul : 08.00 s/d 10.00 WIB
Pembagian Hasil Ujian Tulis
Tanggal : 3 Juli 2008
Pukul : 09.00 s/d 13.00 WIB
Pengumuman Hasil Test Kesehatan, Psikotest dan Wawancara (khusus untuk SMKN)
Tanggal : 3 Juli 2008
Pukul : 09.00 s/d 13.00 WIB
Pendaftaran Pemilihan Sekolah/Program Keahlian.
Tanggal : 4 dan 5 Juli 2008
Pukul : 08.00 s/d 13.00 WIB
Verifikasi data oleh calon siswa
Tanggal : 6 Juli 2008
Pukul : 08.00 s/d 11.00 WIB
Pengumuman Tahap I
Tanggal : 7 Juli 2008
Pukul : 10.00 WIB
Daftar ulang pengumuman tahap I
Tanggal : 7, 8 dan 9 Juli 2008
Pukul : 08.00 s/d 13.00 WIB
Pengumuman Tahap II
Tanggal : 10 Juli 2008
Pukul : 10.00 WIB
Daftar Ulang pengumuman tahap II
Tanggal : 10 dan 11 Juli 2008
Pukul : 08.00 s/d 13.00 WIB
Persiapan MOS : 12 Juli 2008
Permulaan Tahun Pelajaran : 14 Juli 2008
Pelaksanaan MOS : 14, 15 dan 16 Juli 2008

Alur Pendaftaran

LUAR DAERAH


CALON SISWA DARI LUAR DAERAH ::..

Bagi siswa dari luar Kabupaten Sidoarjo wajib membawa surat rekomendasi dari Dinas Pendidikan asal


ALUR PENDAFTARAN


SMPN & SMAN ::..

Mengambil Berkas Pendaftaran di Sekolah, dimana didalamnya berisi Formulir Pemilihan sekolah dan kartu ujian tulis.
Isi Identitas kartu ujian tulis dan masukkan ke petugas pendaftaran sekolah dengan melampirkan foto copy ijazah yang dilegalisir 1 lembar.
Peserta mengikuti ujian tulis, Hasil ujian tulis diumumkan dan dibagikan.
Peserta melakukan pemilihan sekolah, melengkapi dan memasukkan formulir Pemilihan Sekolah ke petugas di sekolah.
Menerima print out input data dari sekolah.

Gambar alur pendaftaran SMPN dan SMAN

SMKN ::..

Mengambil Berkas Pendaftaran di Sekolah, dimana didalamnya berisi Formulir Pemilihan Sekolah, kartu ujian tulis dan Psikotest.
Isi identitas kartu ujian tulis dan Psikotest, masukkan ke petugas pendaftaran sekolah dengan melampirkan surat keterangan dari sekolah asal.
Mengikuti test kesehatan, psikotest, wawancara dan Ujian tulis.
Hasil semua test akan diumumkan dan dibagikan ke siswa
Peserta melakukan pemilihan sekolah ke petugas di sekolah.
Menerima print out input data dari sekolah.

Gambar

PSB SMKN

SMKN


MEKANISME PENDAFTARAN SMKN ::..
Calon siswa mendaftar Ujian tulis di SMKN yang Program/bidang keahliannya dipilih dengan membawa foto copy ijazah yang dilegalisir 1 lembar atau surat keterangan lulus dari sekolah asal dan foto 4x6 2 lembar
Calon siswa akan menerima kartu ujian tulis dan Formulir pemilihan program/bidang keahlian
Soal ujian tulis berbasis kurikulum 2004
Mata pelajaran yang diujikan meliputi Bahasa Indoneisa, Matematika, Bahasa Inggris, IPA, IPS dan PKn.
Mengikuti test kesehatan, psikotest dan wawancara (pembiyaan tersendiri)
Calon siswa dapat memilih maksimal 2 program/bidang keahlian, dalam satu sekolah (SMKN).
Untuk test minat dan bakat (psikotest) dan test khusus (wawancara) dalam satu kelompok program/bidang keahlian mempunyai bobot yang sama.
Setelah nilai ujian tulis, psikotest, wawancara dan kesehatan diumumkan dan dibagikan, calon siswa melakukan pemilihan program/bidang keahlian.
Berkas Formulir pemilihan program/bidang keahlian harus dikembalikan di SMKN yang program/bidang keahliannya dipilih


MEKANISME PEMILIHAN SEKOLAH SMKN ::..

Memasukkan Formulir Pendaftaran yang telah diisi dan dilengkapi dengan :
Hasil Ujian tulis, psikotest, wawancara dan kesehatan asli
Foto kopi ijazah yang telah dilegalisir 2 lembar dan menunjukkan ijazah asli
SKHUN asli


KETENTUAN LAIN SMKN ::..
Usia maksimal 21 (dua puluh satu) tahun pada awal tahun pelajaran
Rumus nilai akhir (NA) yang dipakai untuk siswa kelas 10 SMKN adalah:

NA = ((NUT X 2) + (NTB X 2) + NTK)/5

NA = Nilai Akhir
NUT = Nilai Ujian Nasional dan Ujian TUlis
NTB = Nilai test minat dan bakat (psikotest)
NTK = Nilai test khusus (wawancara)

PSB SMAN

SMAN


MEKANISME PENDAFTARAN SMAN ::..
Calon siswa mendaftar di SMAN terdekat untuk mengikuti tes tulis dengan membawa foto copy ijazah yang dilegalisir 1 lembar atau surat keterangan lulus dari sekolah asal dan foto 4 x 6 = 2 lembar
Calon siswa akan menerima kartu ujian tulis dan formulir pemilihan sekolah
Soal ujian tulis berbasis kurikulum 2004
Mata pelajaran yang diujikan meliputi Bahasa Indonesia, Matematika, Bahasa Inggris, IPA, IPS dan PKn.
Setelah nilai tes tulis diumumkan, calon siswa melakukan pemilihan sekolah
Berkas formulir pemilihan sekolah boleh dimasukkan secara bebas di SMAN manapun ( tidak harus disekolah tempat pendaftaran ujian tulis )


MEKANISME PEMILIHAN SEKOLAH SMAN ::..

Memasukkan Formulir Pendaftaran yang telah diisi dan dilengkapi dengan :
Hasil ujian tulis asli
Foto kopi ijazah yang telah dilegalisir 2 lembar dan menunjukkan ijazah asli
SKHUN asli


KETENTUAN LAIN SMAN ::..
Usia maksimal 21 ( dua puluh satu ) tahun pada awal tahun pelajaran
Bebas memilih dan menentukan urutan sekolah yang diinginkan dengan ketentuan maksimal pilihan adalah 2 (dua) sekolah dari 12 SMA Negeri
Rumus nilai akhir (NA) scoring terpadu adalah :

NA = (∑ Nilai Tes Tulis X 40%) + (∑ Nilai Ujian Nasional X 60%)
Jika terjadi nilai sama maka yang dipakai sebagai acuan menentukan peringkat tertinggi adalah nilai dari tes tulis berdasarkan urutan mata pelajaran sbb :
Bahasa Indonesia
Matematika
Bahasa Inggris
IPA
IPS
PKn

PSB SMPN

SMPN


MEKANISME PENDAFTARAN SMPN ::..
Calon siswa mendaftar di SMPN terdekat untuk mengikuti ujian tulis dengan membawa foto copy ijazah yang dilegalisir 1 lembar atau surat keterangan lulus dari sekolah asal dan foto 4x6 2 lembar
Calon siswa akan menerima kartu ujian tulis dan formulir pemilihan sekolah
Soal ujian tulis berbasis kurikulum 2004
Mata pelajaran yang diujikan meliputi Bahasa Indonesia, Matematika, IPA, IPS dan PKn.
Setelah nilai ujian tulis dibagikan, calon siswa melakukan pemilihan sekolah
Berkas Formulir pemilihan sekolah boleh dimasukkan secara bebas di SMPN manapun / tidak harus disekolah tempat pendaftaran ujian tulis


MEKANISME PEMILIHAN SEKOLAH SMPN ::..

Memasukkan Formulir Pendaftaran yang telah diisi dan dilengkapi dengan :
Hasil ujian tulis asli
Foto kopi ijazah yang telah dilegalisir 2 lembar dan menunjukkan ijazah asli
SKHUN asli


KETENTUAN LAIN SMPN ::..
Usia maksimal 18 (delapan belas) tahun pada awal tahun pelajaran;
Bebas memilih dan menentukan urutan sekolah yang diinginkan, maksimal 2 (dua) sekolah dari 44 SMP Negeri;
Nilai mata pelajaran UASBN yang dipakai dalam scoring terpadu adalah Bahasa Indonesia, Matematika, dan IPA.
Rumus nilai akhir (NA) scoring terpadu adalah :

NA = ( ∑ Nilai Tes Tulis X 40% ) + ( ∑ UASBN X 60% )
Jika terjadi nilai akhir sama maka yang dipakai acuan menentukan peringkat tertinggi adalah nilai dari ujian tulis dengan urutan :
Bahasa Indonesia
Matematika
IPA
IPS
PKn

INFO TERBARU Tentang PSB Sidoarjo

INFO TERBARU



Tentang PSB 14 Juni 2008


PENJELASAN ::..
Mekanisme ini berlaku untuk pendaftaran ke kelas 1 SMPN, SMAN dan SMKN tahun ajaran 2008/2009
Untuk mendaftar ke SMPN, SMAN dan SMKN calon siswa harus ikut ujian tulis
Setelah hasil ujian tulis dibagi, calon siswa melakukan proses pemilihan sekolah
Pendaftaran ke SMKN, calon siswa wajib mengikuti test kesehatan, psikotest dan wawancara
Penilaian menggunakan skoring terpadu, yaitu kombinasi nilai ujian tulis dan UASBN---- untuk SMPN; nilai ujian tulis dan ujian nasional ---- untuk SMAN.
Nilai akhir merupakan nilai desimal dengan pembulatan 2 digit di belakang koma
Tidak ada pencabutan pendaftaran, perubahan dan penambahan pilihan, pendaftaran hanya dilakukan sekali setelah itu tinggal menunggu pengumuman


TUJUAN ::..

Memberi kesempatan yang seluas-luasnya bagi warga negara usia sekolah memperoleh layanan pendidikan yang sebaik-baiknya

Wednesday, 18 June 2008

BeriTa... CopyrighT by : ALL siTe

SURABAYA - Pagu siswa yang akan diterima di masing-masing SMAN Surabaya 2008 diperkirakan tetap seperti tahun sebelumnya. Demikian pula range nilai (hasil unas minimal dan maksimal) siswa. Hal itu diungkapkan pejabat Dindik Kota Surabaya yang meminta Surya konfirmasi kepada Kadindik Sahudi, Minggu (1/6). “Begitu pula kuota siswa luar kota, dibatasi 5 persen,” ungkapnya.
Karena belum ada perubahan, pejabat itu menyarankan kepada para wali murid untuk sementara berpedoman kepada pagu dan range nilai 2007.

“Nilai tersebut belum pasti sama untuk tahun 2008 ini.
Tapi, paling tidak, itu bisa memberi sedikit informasi,” ungkap pajabat itu.
Pagu total siswa baru reguler untuk 22 SMAN se Surabaya pada 2007 mencapai 6.549 siswa (lihat tabel). Berdasar data itu, jumlah siswa dari luar kota yang diterima adalah 327 orang (5 persen).

Siswa luar kota bisa mendaftar di Kantor Dindik Kota Surabaya Jl Raya Jagir pada 23 Juni 2008 hingga 26 Juni 2008, dengan membawa nilai hasil unas dan surat rekomendasi dari daerah asal.
Diterima-tidaknya mereka di SMA yang dituju tergantung hasil perhitungan skor kategori siswa dan hasil unas. Kategori yang akan dinilai ini meliputi sekolah asal, domisili tempat tinggal di Surabaya, dan domisili tempat kerja di Surabaya.

Selanjutnya, mereka akan diseleksi berdasar kuota rekomendasi mutasi rayon calon peserta PSB luar kota. Hasil seleksi akan diumumkan lewat internet pada 27 Juni 2008.
Dengan rekomendasi mutasi rayon itu, mereka bisa mengambil formulir pendaftaran bersama para siswa pendaftar reguler pada 3 hingga 5 Juli 2008 di sub rayon masing-masing SMA (data lihat tabel).

Penyerahan formulir pendaftaran dijadwalkan 7 hingga 9 Juli 2008. Penerimaan akan diumumkan 11 Juli 2008 dan langsung proses daftar ulang sampai 12 Juli di sekolah yang dituju.

Pada hari itu juga, kalau ada bangku kosong di masing-masing sekolah, sekitar pukul 13.00 WIB hingga 16.00 WIB bisa diperebutkan untuk calon siswa yang terlempar dari sekolah yang diminati.
Calon siswa baru SMA dapat memilih sekolah pada 1 (satu) subrayon wilayah kawasan dan diberi peluang memilih 1 (satu) sekolah pada subrayon dalam satu wilayah kawasan atau di luar subrayon wilayah kawasan SMA.

“Dalam pendaftaran reguler ini, para calon siswa bisa memilih tiga sekolah sesuai sub rayon masing-masing, tapi bila ingin pindah sub rayon bisa menggunakan kesempatan pada tanggal 12 Juli 2008 siang,” jelas pejabat Dindik.

Diterima tidaknya siswa SMP/MTs di sekolah yang dituju bergantung nilai unas dan urutan nilai. Nilai para pendaftar akan diranking. Kalau terdapat kesamaan, maka yang lolos adalah mereka yang memiliki nilai tertinggi pada mata pelajaran dengan urutan bahasa Indonesia, matematika, bahasa Inggris, dan IPA.

SMP Sama
Untuk PSB SMP Negeri, Kota Surabaya menggunakana ketentuan yang hampir sama dengan PSB SMA. Baik calon siswa luar kota maupun dalam kota, dalam PSB reguler mereka bisa memilih tiga sekolah dengan sistem dua sekolah dalam satu rayon dan satu sekolah di luar rayon.

Tentang akan dilakukannya sistem pembatasan melalui kawasan, pejabat Dindik menyatakan belum bisa diputuskan sekarang. “Sampai saat ini masih sama dengan tahun lalu juga. Termasuk pagu di masing-masing sekolah,” ujarnya.

Pagu siswa baru SMP di Surabaya, bila menggunakan data PSB tahun 2007, total untuk 42 SMP Negeri, sebanyak 12.174 siswa. Jatah 5 persen bagi siswa luar kota mencapai 608 kursi.
Ketentuan dan jadwal yang berlaku pun sama dengan SMA dan tidak dibatasi oleh kawasan.
Seleksi masuk untuk siswa dalam kota, menggunakan peringkat hasil nilai UASBN SD/MI. Sedangkan dari luar kota juga menggunakan pendaftaran rekomendasi di kantor Diknas Kota Surabaya dengan penilaian bobot yang sama dengan SMA. rie

Di Sidoarjo, Tes Masuk Gratis

Para calon siswa SMPN/SMAN Sidoarjo bisa mendaftarkan diri sebagai peserta tes pada 24 - 26 Juni 2008.
“Tanggal pelaksanaan tes akan ditetapkan menyusul. Siswa silakan daftar dulu, gratis,” ujar Kadindik Sidoarjo MG Hadi Sutjipto, Minggu (1/6), usai mengikuti seminar TI dan pendidikan.
Para calon siswa baru tak perlu bersusah payah mendaftar maupun tes di sekolah yang dituju. Mereka cukup datang ke SMPN/SMAN terdekat.

Tuesday, 10 June 2008

Info Kesehatan

[Geologi UGM] Info Kesehatan - STROKE
· From: RUDIYONO To: geologiugm@xxxxxxxxxxxxx
· Date: Fri, 30 Jan 2004 15:45:36 +0800
Buat rekan-rekan yang ingin tahu lebih jauh tentang STROKE,
Thanks,
Mr. Rudiyono

Stroke
Apakah stroke itu ?
Penyakit stroke adalah gangguan fungsi otak akibat aliran darah ke otak
mengalami gangguan (berkurang). Akibatnya, nutrisi dan oksigen yang
dbutuhkan otak tidak terpenuhi dengan baik. Penyebab stroke ada 2 macam,
yaitu adanya sumbatan di pembuluh darah (trombus), dan adanya pembuluh darah
yang pecah.
Umumnya stroke diderita oleh orang tua, karena proses penuaan menyebabkan
pembuluh darah mengeras dan menyempit (arteriosclerosis) dan adanya lemak yang
menyumbat pembuluh darah (atherosclerosis). Tapi beberapa kasus terakhir
menunjukkan peningkatan kasus stroke yang
terjadi pada usia remaja dan usia produktif (15 - 40 tahun). Pada golongan
ini, penyebab utama stroke adalah stress, penyalahgunaan narkoba, alkohol,
faktor keturunan, dan gaya hidup yang tidak sehat.
Penyebab stroke
Pada kasus stroke usia remaja, faktor genetika (keturunan) merupakan
penyebab utama terjadinya stroke. Sering ditemui kasus stroke yang
disebabkan oleh pembuluh darah yang rapuh dan mudah pecah, atau kelainan
sistem darah seperti penyakit hemofilia dan thalassemia yang diturunkan oleh
orang tua penderita. Sedangkan jika ada anggota
keluarga yang menderita diabetes (penyakit kencing manis), hipertensi
(tekanan darah tinggi), dan penyakit jantung, kemungkinan terkena stroke
menjadi lebih besar pada anggota keluarga lainnya.
Penyebab serangan stroke lainnya adalah makanan dengan kadar kolesterol
jahat (Low Density Lipoprotein) yang sangat tinggi. Koleserol jahat ini banyak
terdapat pada junk food, atau makanan cepat saji. Selain itu, penyebab
terjadinya serangan stroke
lainnya adalah kebiasaan malas berolah raga dan bergerak, banyak minum
alkohol, merokok, penggunaan narkotika dan zat adiktif, waktu istirahat
yang sangat kurang, serta stress yang berkepanjangan. Pecahnya pembuluh
darah juga sering diakibatkan karena penyakit tekanan darah tinggi
(hipertensi).
Gejala terjadinya serangan stroke
Gejala awal stroke umumnya pusing, kepala serasa berputar (seperti
penyakit vertigo), kemudian disusul dengan gangguan berbicara dan
menggerakkan otot mulut. Gejala lainnya adalah tergangguanya sensor perasa
(tidak bisa merasakan apapun , seperti dicubit atau ditusuk jarum) dan
tubuh terasa lumpuh sebelah, serta tidak adanya gerakan refleks. Sering
juga terjadi buta mendadak atau kaburnya pandangan (karena suplai darah
dan oksigen ke mata berkurang drastis), terganggunya sistem rasa di mulut
dan otot-otot mulut (sehingga sering dijumpai wajah penderita menjadi
mencong), lumpuhnya otot-otot tubuh yang lain, dan terganggunya sistem
memory dan emosi. Sering dijumpai penderita tidak dapat menghentikan
tangisnya karena lumpuhnya kontrol otak pada sistem emosinya. Hal itu
membuat penderita stroke berlaku seperti penderita penyakit kejiwaan,
padahal bukan. Hal-hal seperti ini yang perlu dimengerti oleh keluarga
penderita.
Proses penyembuhan
Ada 2 proses penyembuhan utama yang harus dijalani penderita. Pertama
adalah penyembuhan dengan obat-obatan di rumah sakit. Kontrol yang ketat
harus dilakukan untuk menjaga agar kadar kolesterol jahat dapat diturunkan
dan tidak bertambah naik. Selain itu, penderita juga dilarang makan
makanan yang dapat memicu terjadinya serangan stroke seperti junk food dan
garam (dapat memicu hipertensi).
Proses penyembuhan kedua adalah fisiotherapy, yaitu latihan otot-otot untuk
mengembalikan fungsi otot dan fungsi
komunikasi agar mendekati kondisi semula. Fisiotherapi dilakukan bersama
instruktur fisiotherapi, dan pasien harus taat pada latihan yang
dilakukan. Jika fisiotherapi ini tidak dijalani dengan sungguh-sungguh,
maka dapat terjadi kelumpuhan permanen pada anggota tubuh yang pernah
mengalami kelumpuhan.
Kesembuhan pada penderita stroke sangat bervariasi. Ada yang bisa sembuh
sempurna (100 %), ada pula yang cuma 50 % saja. Kesembuhan ini tergantung
dari parah atau tidaknya serangan stroke, kondisi tubuh penderita,
ketaatan penderita dalam menjalani proses penyembuhan, ketekunan dan
semangat penderita untuk sembuh, serta dukungan dan pengertian dari
seluruh anggota keluarga penderita. Seringkali ditemui bahwa penderita
stroke dapat pulih kembali, tetapi menderita depresi hebat karena keluarga
mereka tidak mau mengerti dan merasa sangat terganggu dengan penyakit yang
dideritanya (seperti sikap tidak menerima keadaan penderita, perlakuan
kasar karena harus membersihkan kotoran penderita, menyerahkan penderita
kepada suster yang juga memperlakukan penderita dengan kasar, dan
sebagainya). Hal ini yang harus dihindarkan jika ada anggota keluarga yang
menderita serangan stroke.

Sebagai salah satu penyebab kematian terbanyak, penyakit stroke hanya
diidentikkan dengan kelumpuhan anggota gerak yang menyerang secara
tiba-tiba serta terjadinya penurunan kesadaran.
Justru gejala tersamar dari stroke kurang diwaspadai, seperti gangguan
bahasa, gangguan memori, gangguan emosi, gangguan perilaku, dan demensia
(pikun). Padahal, deteksi dini terhadap gejala stroke merupakan hal yang
utama, sebab sampai saat ini belum semua pelayanan kesehatan memiliki alat
mutakhir yang mampu mendeteksi stroke.
Demikian penjelasan Dodik Tugasworo SpS, staf bagian Neurologi Rumah Sakit
Umum (RSU) Dr Kariadi, Semarang, dalam seminar Stroke dan Rehabilitasi
yang digelar di Wisma Katarina RS Elizabeth, Semarang, Sabtu (22/2).
Pembicara lain adalah ahli Patologis Klinis dari RSU Dr Kariadi AP Pradana
SpPK, staf bagian Neurologi RSU Dr Kariadi, Martinus Julianto SpS, dan
ahli rehabilitasi medik RS Elizabeth E Endang Sri Mariani SpRM.
Di Amerika Serikat (AS), negara yang maju teknologinya, penyakit stroke
merupakan penyebab kematian kedua terbesar setelah penyakit jantung.
Setiap tahunnya diperkirakan 750.000 orang menderita stroke dengan angka
kematian melebihi 150.000 orang per tahun dan biaya riset 46 juta dollar
AS per tahun.
Sepertiga penderita meninggal saat serangan awal (fase akut), sepertiga
lagi mengalami stroke berulang, dan dari 50 persen yang selamat akan
mengalami kecacatan. Dari satu juta populasi, dilaporkan sekitar 2.400
orang menderita stroke dan sekitar 1.800 orang akan kambuh kembali.
Di Indonesia, data yang valid tentang prevalensi penderita stroke memang
belum ada. Namun sebagai contoh saja, di bangsal saraf RSU Dr Kariadi,
setiap bulannya menerima pasien stroke antara 40-60 orang. Sedangkan di RS
Elizabeth, tahun 2001 terdapat 152 penderita stroke, dan pada tahun 2002
menjadi 339 penderita stroke.
Pola modern
Peningkatan angka penderita stroke ini disebabkan pola hidup modern yang
tidak seimbang. Kurang berolahraga, namun pola makan tidak sehat dan sarat
dengan makanan junk food. Bahkan, stroke tak lagi cuma menyerang mereka
yang berumur 40 tahun ke atas, tetapi remaja dan anak-anak pun tak luput
dari serangan penyakit ini.
"Jika salah satu dari keluarga kita terkena stroke, bawalah segera ke
dokter. Penanganan yang cepat tidak boleh lebih dari 6 hingga 12 jam.
Bahkan, di luar negeri penanganan tidak boleh lebih dari tiga jam. Jika
serangan stroke tidak segera diatasi, akan terjadi dampak bagi kesembuhan
sang penderita," jelas Dodik
Martinus menjelaskan, stroke dapat dibagi dua bagian, yaitu stroke
perdarahan dan stroke sumbatan. Sekitar 80 persen penderita mengalami
stroke sumbatan dan hanya sedikit penderita yang mengalami stroke
perdarahan. Keduanya memiliki kelemahan, yaitu stroke perdarahan pada
tahap akut dapat mengakibatkan angka kematian (mortalitas) yang tinggi.
Sedangkan stroke sumbatan, yang sulit ditangani adalah gejala sisanya.
Stroke sumbatan mengakibatkan banyak sel otak yang mati. (VIN)


*****

Vasco Núñez de Balboa

Vasco Núñez de Balboa
Vasco Núñez de Balboa (1475?-1519), Spanish explorer in America. He was born in Jerez de los Caballeros, Spain. Considered the first of the conquistadors (leaders of the Spanish conquest in the western hemisphere), Balboa is best known as the first European to see the Pacific Ocean. Balboa sailed to Venezuela in 1501 with an expedition led by Rodrigo de Bastidas. After exploring the southwestern Caribbean area with Bastidas, he became a planter on the island of Hispaniola. By 1510 the plantation had failed. Deep in debt and anxious to escape his creditors, Balboa fled to the settlement of San Sebastián on the coast of Colombia. When he found that San Sebastián had been attacked by Native Americans and was in ruins, Balboa persuaded its settlers to move to the Isthmus of Panama, which he had explored with Bastidas. There they founded a new settlement at Darién, and Balboa was elected governor. He arrested the expedition leader, whom Spain had chosen as governor, and sent him back to Spain. Balboa explored the inland areas and brought the Native Americans under Spanish rule. Unlike later conquistadors, he utilized diplomacy instead of force in dealing with the Native Americans. In 1513 Balboa was accused of treason by his enemies in Spain, who turned the king against him. In hope of winning the king’s favor with some new discovery, Balboa decided to find the rumored great sea on the other side of the isthmus. In September 1513, with 190 Spanish soldiers and 1000 Native Americans, he made the arduous westward journey from the Atlantic side of the isthmus through some of the thickest jungles on the continent. On September 29 he reached his destination, named it Mar del Sur (South Sea), and claimed it for Spain. It was later named the Pacific Ocean by Portuguese navigator Ferdinand Magellan in 1520. Balboa notified Spain of his discovery and sent gifts of gold and pearls he had found. The king, however, sent a new governor, Pedrarias Dávila, to be Balboa’s superior. The two became bitter rivals. Balboa’s successes caused Pedrarias to envy and hate him. Pedrarias had him arrested, convicted of treason, and beheaded in January 1519. Panama honors Balboa by naming its monetary unit, the balboa, after him.

Samuel de Champlain

Samuel de Champlain

I INTRODUCTION
Samuel de Champlain (1567?-1635), French explorer, known as the father of New France, the French colonial empire in North America. He established a trading post, which eventually became the city of Québec, in 1608 at the first narrows of the St. Lawrence River and governed it until his death.

II EARLY LIFE
Champlain was born in Brouage, France, but little is known of his early years. His parents may have been members of the lower nobility. Like his father before him, he served as a naval captain. He thus acquired the training that made him a very competent navigator and geographer, and an excellent cartographer.

III FIRST VISIT TO NORTH AMERICA
In 1603 Champlain made his first visit to North America as a royal geographer on a fur trading expedition. The expedition sailed to Tadoussac, at the mouth of the Saguenay River, which had long been a trading center for the indigenous peoples living along the St. Lawrence. Here the French were accustomed to meeting the Montagnais people bringing furs to trade for French cloth and metal wares.
Champlain made good use of his time there. He ventured far up the Saguenay, up the St. Lawrence River to Montréal Island, and up the river that would be named the Richelieu. He gathered information from the Montagnais on the geography of the northeastern section of the continent. He used this information to draw a remarkably accurate map showing a large bay to the north (Hudson Bay) and water to the west, which he later discovered was the Great Lakes. This western body of water was so large that he believed it must connect with the Pacific Ocean, thus forming the fabled Northwest Passage through the continent. Many 17th-century explorers were searching for that passage, believing it would provide an easy water route to the wealth of China.

IV SECOND VISIT
During Champlain’s first visit to North America, he had learned about a pleasant land to the south, with a mild winter climate. He had also been shown a metal, which he thought might be silver. This southern area became Champlain’s destination on his second trip, in 1604, which was undertaken to establish a settlement in this region. The French named the area Acadie (in English, Acadia). A permanent settlement was required in exchange for a commission to govern Acadia that French explorer Pierre du Gua, Sieur de Monts had obtained.
Champlain explored the Atlantic Coast on the north side of the Bay of Fundy, sighting a river flowing from the north that he named the Saint-Jean (now the Saint John River). He learned from the area’s inhabitants, the Maliseet, that the river was their route to the St. Lawrence. Traveling west along the coast, Champlain chose a site on the Saint Croix River for the permanent settlement, but 35 of the 79 men who stayed there during the winter of 1604 to 1605 died of scurvy. The base was then moved, in the spring of 1605, to the south side of the Bay of Fundy and named Port Royal. Champlain remained there for three years, during which he charted the coast as far south as Cape Cod.

V THIRD VISIT
In 1607 De Monts lost his commission to govern Acadia. The following year he decided to establish a trading post far up the St. Lawrence, at a point where it narrows to less than a mile wide. There his traders could greet indigenous people bringing furs from the west and take away business that would otherwise go to Tadoussac. This trading post, established by Champlain on July 3, 1608, became Québec. Scurvy again took its toll, claiming 16 of the 25 men; but they were replaced, and Québec survived. This was the first permanent white settlement in the region called Canada, and today it is the oldest city in the western hemisphere north of Saint Augustine, Florida. (Port Royal remained a small town.)
Champlain was given the title of lieutenant of the viceroy of New France in 1612. From this point on, Champlain’s aims in life were to explore and map the continent, to find a water route to the Pacific, and to convert the indigenous peoples to Christianity. Such aims were costly, and the money could come only from the fur trade. He therefore made a commercial alliance with the northern and western nations, the Montagnais, Algonquin, and Huron.
The alliance included military aid. In June 1609 Champlain and two of his men joined these nations when they invaded the hunting grounds of a longtime enemy, the Iroquois confederacy. They met 200 Iroquois by the lake now known as Lake Champlain. This marked the beginning of warfare between the French and the Iroquois that lasted off and on for 90 years and almost destroyed the colony.

VI FURTHER TRAVELS AND EXPLORATIONS
For most of the remainder of Champlain’s life, he would spend a few months of the year at Québec, then go to France to secure support. He spent far more time in France, and crossing the ocean, than he did in Québec. When he returned to Québec, he spent most of his time prodding lazy workers to do building and repairing they had neglected. He also renewed alliances with his indigenous allies, resolving their complaints.
In 1613 Champlain explored the Ottawa, the river that would become the main highway to the west, as far as Allumette Island. He then returned to France and persuaded the Récollet order of Roman Catholic priests to send four missionaries to Canada. Two years went by before he returned with the Récollets. He then set out on a major voyage of discovery to the country of the Huron, the territory between Georgian Bay and Lake Ontario.
On this journey Champlain and his party explored Georgian Bay and Lake Ontario. He spent the winter of 1615 in the Huron country, where he learned much about the land and its inhabitants. He was particularly interested in knowledge of the area farther west, beyond Lake Huron. He learned that this area contained other vast lakes, but the Huron would not allow him to go there. They were at war with the nations to the west and were afraid that the French might establish relations with their enemies. Thus Champlain had to rely on scanty information for the map that he eventually produced of the region. As a result, the map was flawed, but his account of his stay with the Huron is a mine of information about these people, their customs and religion, and the geography of the country.

VII THE STRUGGLE FOR FINANCING
In 1610, while in France, Champlain was married to Hélène Boullé. It appears to have been a marriage of convenience: he was then in his forties, and she was 12 years old. She brought a handsome dowry of 6000 livres, money that he urgently needed to keep the Québec post in operation. Hélène accompanied Champlain to Québec in 1620 and stayed there with him for four years. She then went back to France with him and never returned.
From 1616 to 1620 Champlain spent most of each year in France, with brief summer visits to Québec. In France he had to struggle to keep the Canadian enterprise alive, raise capital, and enlist workers. He also had to fight to keep his command over Québec. In 1618 he presented reports on the future of the French colonies in America to the king and to the French Chamber of Commerce.
In these reports he proposed that 300 settler families and 15 Récollets be established at Québec, with 300 soldiers to protect them. He claimed that this would give France the ability to control the interior of the continent and to convert the pagans to Christianity. Wealth would pour into France from the land’s resources of fish, timber, copper, iron, silver, and precious stones. However, he believed that the major benefit would be the revenue from the short water route to the western ocean and China, once this route was discovered. Then all the maritime nations of Europe would have to use it and pay whatever tolls France chose to levy.
Champlain’s struggles to maintain the infant colony took a turn for the better in 1627 when the king’s first minister, Cardinal Richelieu, took charge of the overseas colonies. He founded the Company of One Hundred Associates and required each associate to invest a large sum of money. Champlain became one of the associates and remained in charge of New France.
But two years later disaster struck. Anglo-Scots privateers, the Kirke brothers, drew up their ships at Québec in 1629 and demanded its surrender. Champlain had to comply because he did not have the manpower to resist: in all of New France—Canada and Acadia together—there were only 107 settlers at that time. The Kirkes also seized the company’s convoy of ships bringing reinforcements and supplies up the St. Lawrence. That loss exhausted the company’s capital, and it never recovered. Champlain was taken prisoner and held in England until 1632. In 1633 he returned to New France and tried to repair the damage done by the Kirkes and reestablish good relations with his old allies. However, his health began to fail, and he died at Québec on December 25, 1635. Toward the end, his mind bewildered, he dictated a new will leaving all his possessions to the Virgin Mary. Two years later his wife succeeded in having the will annulled.

VIII EVALUATION
Champlain accomplished much during his relatively long life. He produced the first accurate chart of the Atlantic coast from Newfoundland to Cape Cod and maps of the St. Lawrence Valley and Great Lakes Basin. Many of his observations were published in the large body of writing he left behind, which eventually was printed in six volumes. Champlain’s accounts of the habits and characteristics of indigenous peoples, although flawed by his lack of understanding of their cultures, have been of great value to historians.
Champlain established the commercial and military alliances that endured to the end of the French regime in Canada. He created and maintained a base for the future French empire in North America in the face of great difficulties.

Roald Amundsen

Roald Amundsen
Roald Amundsen (1872-1928), Norwegian polar explorer, born in Borge, and educated at the University of Christiania (now the University of Oslo). He entered the Norwegian navy in 1894 and spent the following nine years studying science. From 1903 to 1906 he led his first important expedition in the small sloop Gjöa. During this voyage he sailed successfully through the Northwest Passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean and determined the position of the north magnetic pole. His next expedition (1910-1912) sailed in a larger ship, the Fram, and gained fame as one of the most successful undertakings in the history of Antarctic exploration. With his companions, he lived in Antarctica for more than a year, conducting explorations and scientific investigations. On December 14, 1911, he reached the South Pole, becoming the first person known to have accomplished this feat. He had favorable weather conditions during the voyages, but his success was due primarily to his knowledge of polar conditions, his attention to minute details, and his ability to endure great physical stress.
Amundsen's plans for an expedition into the north polar regions were interrupted by the outbreak of World War I; in 1918, however, he sailed from Norway in an attempt to drift eastward across the North Pole with the ice currents of the Arctic Ocean. The currents proved too variable to permit a crossing of the pole, and he was forced to follow a more southerly route through the Northeast Passage along the northern coast of Europe and Asia. The voyage ended in 1920, when he arrived in Nome, Alaska. In 1922 another attempt to reach the pole by both ship and airplane failed, and in 1924 Amundsen came to the United States to raise funds for further expeditions. In May 1926 he succeeded in crossing the North Pole during a flight of more than 70 hours from Spitsbergen, Norway, to Teller, Alaska; he was accompanied by the American explorer Lincoln Ellsworth and the Italian explorer and engineer Umberto Nobile. This flight was made in the dirigible Norge, designed and built by Nobile with the support of the Italian government. Nobile and Amundsen subsequently quarreled, each claiming that the credit for the flight belonged to his respective country. In 1928, however, when Nobile's airship Italia was wrecked during a polar flight, Amundsen, who had retired, volunteered to search for him. Nobile was eventually rescued, but Amundsen was last heard from June 28, 1928, a few hours after he and five others had left Tromsø, Norway, by airplane. The remains of his airplane were found near Tromsø on August 31.
For most of his life Amundsen was a well-known lecturer and magazine writer. His books include North West Passage (1908), The South Pole (1912), The North East Passage (1918-1920), Our Polar Flight (with Lincoln Ellsworth, 1925), First Crossing of the Polar Sea (with Lincoln Ellsworth, 1927), and My Life as an Explorer (1927).

John Cabot

John Cabot
John Cabot (1450?-1499), Italian navigator and explorer, who attempted to find a direct route to Asia. Although Cabot was probably born in Genoa, as a youth he moved to Venice, where his seafaring career probably began. He became a naturalized Venetian in 1476, but about eight years later settled in Bristol, England. Cabot had developed a theory that Asia might be reached by sailing westward. This theory appealed to several wealthy merchants of Bristol, who agreed to give him financial support. In 1493, when reports reached England that Christopher Columbus had made the westward passage to Asia, Cabot and his supporters began to make plans for a more direct crossing to the Orient. The proposed expedition was authorized on March 5, 1496, by King Henry VII of England.
With a crew of 18 men, Cabot sailed from Bristol on May 2, 1497, on the Matthew. He steered a generally northwestward course, and on June 24, after a rough voyage, he landed, perhaps on present-day Cape Breton Island; he subsequently sailed along the Labrador, Newfoundland, and New England coasts. Believing that he had reached northeastern Asia, he formally claimed the region for Henry VII. Cabot returned to England in August and was granted a pension. Assured of royal support, he immediately planned a second exploratory voyage that he hoped would bring him to Cipangu (Japan). The expedition, consisting of four or five ships and 300 men, left Bristol in May 1498. The fate of this expedition is uncertain. It is believed that in June, Cabot reached the eastern coast of Greenland and sailed northward along the coast until his crews mutinied because of the severe cold and forced him to turn southward. He may have cruised along the coast of North America to Chesapeake Bay at latitude 38° North. He was forced to return to England because of a lack of supplies, and he died soon afterward.

Captain James Cook

Captain James Cook

I INTRODUCTION
Captain James Cook (1728-1779), British explorer and navigator, famous for his three voyages of exploration in the South Pacific Ocean and the coastal waters of North America. Although Cook is best known as the discoverer of the Hawaiian Islands (see Hawaii), his greatest achievements were the broad scope of his exploration and his detailed, careful documentation of his discoveries.

II EARLY LIFE AND SEAFARING EXPERIENCE
The son of a farm worker, Cook was born in the rural village of Marton, in what was then the county of Yorkshire, England. At age 17 he moved to the coast, settling in the port town of Whitby, where he apprenticed himself to a merchant and shipowner. In 1755, with England on the verge of war with France (see Seven Years’ War), Cook enlisted in the British Royal Navy. Within two years he was master of a warship en route to Canada. There he began assisting an army surveyor assigned to map newly acquired territory. Cook’s aptitude for this work was evident to his superiors, and as a result he spent the rest of the war mapping Québec and the St. Lawrence River. After the war ended in 1763, the British government assigned Cook to map the coast of Newfoundland.

III FIRST PACIFIC VOYAGE
Cook’s talent for mapmaking made him a logical choice when the British government decided to launch a voyage to the Pacific. Officially, the expedition was designed to observe the transit of Venus, a rare astronomical phenomenon that would be visible only in the southern hemisphere. A second motive, however, was to search for Terra Australis, a large continent widely believed to exist in the far southern latitudes. The scientific importance attached to the voyage was evident in its crew, which included an astronomer, two artists, and three naturalists (among them Joseph Banks, later president of the Royal Society).
The expedition set sail from Plymouth, England, in 1768 aboard a single ship, the Endeavour. After crossing the Atlantic Ocean and rounding Cape Horn at the tip of South America, the crew headed for Tahiti, which British explorer Samuel Wallis had encountered in 1767. Tahiti was ideally situated for observing the transit of Venus. Centrally located in the South Pacific, with good harbors, friendly inhabitants, a balmy climate, and abundant food and water, Tahiti would prove an important site for rest and reprovisioning on Cook’s voyages.
Once the transit observations were concluded, Cook launched his search for the fabled southern continent. In the 17th century, explorers had sighted bits of what are known today as Australia and New Zealand, but their maps were sketchy, encouraging speculation that these lands might constitute the northern fringe of a huge continent. Cook headed southwest in search of these previously reported lands and had striking success. He circumnavigated the North and South islands of New Zealand. He also sailed the entire length of Australia’s eastern coast (never before seen by a European), which he claimed for Britain and named New South Wales. He then navigated the treacherous waters between Australia and New Guinea. Stops at Java and the Cape of Good Hope concluded the voyage, and Cook and his crew returned in July 1771.
Cook’s first voyage added immensely to the world’s knowledge of the southern hemisphere. The vast number of specimens collected and the detailed observations recorded by Cook, Banks, and other members of the crew set a new standard for scientific exploration. Cook also set a new standard in another area: keeping his men healthy. He realized that lack of fresh food likely caused high mortality on long voyages. Therefore, he stocked his ship with sauerkraut (to prevent scurvy, a disease caused by vitamin C deficiency) and insisted that his men eat fresh provisions during stops at port. As a result, Cook lost only seven men until the ship reached Java, where many succumbed to malaria and dysentery. On Cook’s subsequent voyages, mortality was close to zero.

IV SECOND PACIFIC VOYAGE
Cook’s second and most ambitious voyage began in 1772 and lasted until 1775. Its aim was to settle once and for all the question of the existence of a southern continent by sailing around the globe at the farthest south latitudes possible. To avoid harsh weather conditions in the extreme southern latitudes, Cook charted a zigzag course, sailing far south in the summers and retreating north to more temperate waters during the winters. He made good use of the experience he had gained on his first voyage, using Tahiti and New Zealand as winter ports.
Cook set out with two ships, the Resolution (commanded by Cook) and the Adventure, and another strong scientific team, including father and son naturalists Johann and George Forster. The expedition sailed around the Cape of Good Hope and then southward toward the Antarctic Ocean, making the first recorded crossing of the Antarctic Circle in January 1773. The two ships then sailed across the southern Indian Ocean to New Zealand and on to Tahiti. Not content to just relax in port, Cook spent the remaining winter months searching for islands that other explorers had encountered more than a century earlier but then “lost” due to primitive navigation techniques. Heading west from Tahiti, he became the first European to sight the island group that was subsequently known as the Cook Islands. He also reached the islands of present-day Tonga, which he called the Friendly Islands because of the welcome he received. The expedition returned to New Zealand to stock up on fresh food before embarking on the long, cold voyage across the southern latitudes. Cook’s determination kept the crew pushing farther south at every opportunity, eventually reaching the southernmost point attained at that time.
In early 1774 Cook and his crew returned to the tropics, where they searched for other islands that earlier explorers had vaguely described. First, they located Easter Island, where Cook was shocked to find people speaking a language similar to that of the Tahitians, Tongans, and New Zealanders. Discovering linguistic similarities among inhabitants of widely scattered islands led Cook to speculate about the history of these Pacific peoples, who are known today as Polynesians (see Polynesia). Speculation continued as the crew sailed west to find a group of islands far west of Tahiti and Tonga. Cook named the islands the New Hebrides (now Vanuatu), after an island group off the coast of Scotland. The inhabitants of the New Hebrides differed physically from the Polynesians and spoke very different languages. These islands are part of what is known today as Melanesia. Among the other islands that Cook relocated and charted were the Marquesas and New Caledonia.
Cook spent the next summer crossing both the Pacific and the South Atlantic to Cape Town. This crossing completed Cook’s circumnavigation of the globe at extreme southern latitudes, proving conclusively that no large, habitable continent existed in this area. After returning to England in 1775, he was made a fellow of the Royal Society. Just months after his return, Cook proposed a third voyage, to tackle another great, unresolved geographical mystery: the supposed Northwest Passage across North America.

V THIRD PACIFIC JOURNEY
Cook’s third voyage (1776-1779) was fraught with problems almost from the outset. In New Zealand, Cook’s expedition suffered the first serious incident of violence on any of his voyages when local people killed and ate a small group of his men. Cook found the consequences of European encounters becoming evident in both Tonga and Tahiti. European visitors to the islands depleted food supplies, creating resentment among native inhabitants and intensifying rivalries between local rulers. Increasing petty theft by native residents annoyed Cook and his crew, and Cook resorted to uncharacteristically harsh methods to control it.
After leaving Tahiti, the expedition headed north into uncharted territory. After becoming the first Europeans to sight the Hawaiian Islands (which Cook named the Sandwich Islands) in 1778, they sailed along the west coast of Canada and Alaska. Twice Cook explored inlets that offered some promise of a Northwest Passage, but to no avail. After sailing through the Bering Strait into the Arctic Sea and briefly scouting the Asian side of the strait, Cook decided to winter in the Hawaiian Islands. He intended to return to the Arctic the following summer.
The crew spent several pleasant weeks at Kealakekua Bay in Hawaii. Soon after they left, they ran into a storm that seriously damaged one of their ships, the Resolution. Upon returning to Hawaii for repairs, Cook’s crew encountered a much less friendly reception, probably because they had depleted local food supplies. When locals stole one of the ship’s boats, Cook responded by taking their chief hostage. The incident ended in violence when one of the islanders struck Cook and killed him. Cook’s companions managed to get back to their ships, and the violence did not escalate. The crew returned to the Arctic and then home. Although the expedition had failed to discover a Northwest Passage, it added detailed charts of the North Pacific to the achievements of Cook’s first two voyages.

VI EVALUATION
Cook’s greatest accomplishments stemmed from his careful, thorough approach to exploration. Although he made few original discoveries, he consolidated the work of several earlier explorers, mapping much of the Pacific from the Arctic to the far south and laying to rest the myth of a habitable continent surrounding the South Pole. In the process, he and his crews collected specimens of plant and animal life and made serious efforts to understand the cultures of native peoples. They tested new methods of navigating at sea and demonstrated that proper diet could reduce the high mortality rates of sailors on long voyages. In the spirit of scientific exploration, Cook and his men documented their work, producing accurate maps and detailed descriptions of their discoveries.
Cook’s journals have been published as The Journals of Captain James Cook on His Voyages of Discovery, edited by J. C. Beaglehole (1955-1967). Other publications resulting from his voyages include The Endeavour Journal of Joseph Banks, 1768-1771, edited by J. C. Beaglehole (1962), and The Resolution Journal of Johann Reinhold Forster, 1772-1775, edited by Michael Hoare (1982).

Wednesday, 23 April 2008

Albert Einstein

Albert Einstein
I INTRODUCTION
Albert Einstein (1879-1955), German-born American physicist and Nobel laureate, best known as the creator of the special and general theories of relativity and for his bold hypothesis concerning the particle nature of light. He is perhaps the most well-known scientist of the 20th century.
Einstein was born in Ulm on March 14, 1879, and spent his youth in Munich, where his family owned a small shop that manufactured electric machinery. He did not talk until the age of three, but even as a youth he showed a brilliant curiosity about nature and an ability to understand difficult mathematical concepts. At the age of 12 he taught himself Euclidean geometry.
Einstein hated the dull regimentation and unimaginative spirit of school in Munich. When repeated business failure led the family to leave Germany for Milan, Italy, Einstein, who was then 15 years old, used the opportunity to withdraw from the school. He spent a year with his parents in Milan, and when it became clear that he would have to make his own way in the world, he finished secondary school in Aarau, Switzerland, and entered the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zürich. Einstein did not enjoy the methods of instruction there. He often cut classes and used the time to study physics on his own or to play his beloved violin. He passed his examinations and graduated in 1900 by studying the notes of a classmate. His professors did not think highly of him and would not recommend him for a university position.
For two years Einstein worked as a tutor and substitute teacher. In 1902 he secured a position as an examiner in the Swiss patent office in Bern. In 1903 he married Mileva Marić, who had been his classmate at the polytechnic. They had two sons but eventually divorced. Einstein later remarried.
II EARLY SCIENTIFIC PUBLICATIONS
In 1905 Einstein received his doctorate from the University of Zürich for a theoretical dissertation on the dimensions of molecules, and he also published three theoretical papers of central importance to the development of 20th-century physics. In the first of these papers, on Brownian motion, he made significant predictions about the motion of particles that are randomly distributed in a fluid. These predictions were later confirmed by experiment.
The second paper, on the photoelectric effect, contained a revolutionary hypothesis concerning the nature of light. Einstein not only proposed that under certain circumstances light can be considered as consisting of particles, but he also hypothesized that the energy carried by any light particle, called a photon, is proportional to the frequency of the radiation. The formula for this is E = hν, where E is the energy of the radiation, h is a universal constant known as Planck’s constant, and ν is the frequency of the radiation. This proposal—that the energy contained within a light beam is transferred in individual units, or quanta—contradicted a hundred-year-old tradition of considering light energy a manifestation of continuous processes. Virtually no one accepted Einstein’s proposal. In fact, when the American physicist Robert Andrews Millikan experimentally confirmed the theory almost a decade later, he was surprised and somewhat disquieted by the outcome.
Einstein, whose prime concern was to understand the nature of electromagnetic radiation, subsequently urged the development of a theory that would be a fusion of the wave and particle models for light. Again, very few physicists understood or were sympathetic to these ideas.
III EINSTEIN’S SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY
Einstein’s third major paper in 1905, “On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies,” contained what became known as the special theory of relativity. Since the time of the English mathematician and physicist Sir Isaac Newton, natural philosophers (as physicists and chemists were known) had been trying to understand the nature of matter and radiation, and how they interacted in some unified world picture. The position that mechanical laws are fundamental has become known as the mechanical world view, and the position that electrical laws are fundamental has become known as the electromagnetic world view. Neither approach, however, is capable of providing a consistent explanation for the way radiation (light, for example) and matter interact when viewed from different inertial frames of reference, that is, an interaction viewed simultaneously by an observer at rest and an observer moving at uniform speed.
In the spring of 1905, after considering these problems for ten years, Einstein realized that the crux of the problem lay not in a theory of matter but in a theory of measurement. At the heart of his special theory of relativity was the realization that all measurements of time and space depend on judgments as to whether two distant events occur simultaneously. This led him to develop a theory based on two postulates: the principle of relativity, that physical laws are the same in all inertial reference systems, and the principle of the invariance of the speed of light, that the speed of light in a vacuum is a universal constant. He was thus able to provide a consistent and correct description of physical events in different inertial frames of reference without making special assumptions about the nature of matter or radiation, or how they interact. Virtually no one understood Einstein’s argument.
IV EARLY REACTIONS TO EINSTEIN
The difficulty that others had with Einstein’s work was not because it was too mathematically complex or technically obscure; the problem resulted, rather, from Einstein’s beliefs about the nature of good theories and the relationship between experiment and theory. Although he maintained that the only source of knowledge is experience, he also believed that scientific theories are the free creations of a finely tuned physical intuition and that the premises on which theories are based cannot be connected logically to experiment. A good theory, therefore, is one in which a minimum number of postulates is required to account for the physical evidence. This sparseness of postulates, a feature of all Einstein’s work, was what made his work so difficult for colleagues to comprehend, let alone support.
Einstein did have important supporters, however. His chief early patron was the German physicist Max Planck. Einstein remained at the patent office for four years after his star began to rise within the physics community. He then moved rapidly upward in the German-speaking academic world; his first academic appointment was in 1909 at the University of Zürich. In 1911 he moved to the German-speaking university at Prague, and in 1912 he returned to the Swiss National Polytechnic in Zürich. Finally, in 1914, he was appointed director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics in Berlin.
V THE GENERAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY
Even before he left the patent office in 1907, Einstein began work on extending and generalizing the theory of relativity to all coordinate systems. He began by enunciating the principle of equivalence, a postulate that gravitational fields are equivalent to accelerations of the frame of reference. For example, people in a moving elevator cannot, in principle, decide whether the force that acts on them is caused by gravitation or by a constant acceleration of the elevator. The full general theory of relativity was not published until 1916. In this theory the interactions of bodies, which heretofore had been ascribed to gravitational forces, are explained as the influence of bodies on the geometry of space-time (four-dimensional space, a mathematical abstraction, having the three dimensions from Euclidean space and time as the fourth dimension).
On the basis of the general theory of relativity, Einstein accounted for the previously unexplained variations in the orbital motion of the planets and predicted the bending of starlight in the vicinity of a massive body such as the sun. The confirmation of this latter phenomenon during an eclipse of the sun in 1919 became a media event, and Einstein’s fame spread worldwide.
For the rest of his life Einstein devoted considerable time to generalizing his theory even more. His last effort, the unified field theory, which was not entirely successful, was an attempt to understand all physical interactions—including electromagnetic interactions and weak and strong interactions—in terms of the modification of the geometry of space-time between interacting entities.
Most of Einstein’s colleagues felt that these efforts were misguided. Between 1915 and 1930 the mainstream of physics was in developing a new conception of the fundamental character of matter, known as quantum theory. This theory contained the feature of wave-particle duality (light exhibits the properties of a particle, as well as of a wave) that Einstein had earlier urged as necessary, as well as the uncertainty principle, which states that precision in measuring processes is limited. Additionally, it contained a novel rejection, at a fundamental level, of the notion of strict causality. Einstein, however, would not accept such notions and remained a critic of these developments until the end of his life. “God,” Einstein once said, “does not play dice with the world.”
VI WORLD CITIZEN
After 1919, Einstein became internationally renowned. He accrued honors and awards, including the Nobel Prize in physics in 1921, from various world scientific societies. His visit to any part of the world became a national event; photographers and reporters followed him everywhere. While regretting his loss of privacy, Einstein capitalized on his fame to further his own political and social views.
The two social movements that received his full support were pacifism and Zionism. During World War I he was one of a handful of German academics willing to publicly decry Germany’s involvement in the war. After the war his continued public support of pacifist and Zionist goals made him the target of vicious attacks by anti-Semitic and right-wing elements in Germany. Even his scientific theories were publicly ridiculed, especially the theory of relativity.
When Hitler came to power, Einstein immediately decided to leave Germany for the United States. He took a position at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton, New Jersey. While continuing his efforts on behalf of world Zionism, Einstein renounced his former pacifist stand in the face of the awesome threat to humankind posed by the Nazi regime in Germany.
In 1939 Einstein collaborated with several other physicists in writing a letter to President Franklin D. Roosevelt, pointing out the possibility of making an atomic bomb and the likelihood that the German government was embarking on such a course. The letter, which bore only Einstein’s signature, helped lend urgency to efforts in the U.S. to build the atomic bomb, but Einstein himself played no role in the work and knew nothing about it at the time.
After the war, Einstein was active in the cause of international disarmament and world government. He continued his active support of Zionism but declined the offer made by leaders of the state of Israel to become president of that country. In the U.S. during the late 1940s and early ‘50s he spoke out on the need for the nation’s intellectuals to make any sacrifice necessary to preserve political freedom. Einstein died in Princeton on April 18, 1955.
Einstein’s efforts in behalf of social causes have sometimes been viewed as unrealistic. In fact, his proposals were always carefully thought out. Like his scientific theories, they were motivated by sound intuition based on a shrewd and careful assessment of evidence and observation. Although Einstein gave much of himself to political and social causes, science always came first, because, he often said, only the discovery of the nature of the universe would have lasting meaning. His writings include Relativity: The Special and General Theory (1916); About Zionism (1931); Builders of the Universe (1932); Why War? (1933), with Sigmund Freud; The World as I See It (1934); The Evolution of Physics (1938), with the Polish physicist Leopold Infeld; and Out of My Later Years (1950). Einstein’s collected papers are being published in a multivolume work, beginning in 1987.

Charles Darwin

Charles Darwin
I INTRODUCTION
Charles Darwin (1809-1882), British scientist, who laid the foundation of modern evolutionary theory with his concept of the development of all forms of life through the slow-working process of natural selection. His work was of major influence on the life and earth sciences and on modern thought in general.
Born in Shrewsbury, Shropshire, England, on February 12, 1809, Darwin was the fifth child of a wealthy and sophisticated English family. His maternal grandfather was the successful china and pottery entrepreneur Josiah Wedgwood; his paternal grandfather was the well-known 18th-century physician and savant Erasmus Darwin. After graduating from the elite school at Shrewsbury in 1825, young Darwin went to the University of Edinburgh to study medicine. In 1827 he dropped out of medical school and entered the University of Cambridge, in preparation for becoming a clergyman of the Church of England. There he met two stellar figures: Adam Sedgwick, a geologist, and John Stevens Henslow, a naturalist. Henslow not only helped build Darwin’s self-confidence but also taught his student to be a meticulous and painstaking observer of natural phenomena and collector of specimens. After graduating from Cambridge in 1831, the 22-year-old Darwin was taken aboard the English survey ship HMS Beagle, largely on Henslow’s recommendation, as an unpaid naturalist on a scientific expedition around the world.
II VOYAGE OF THE BEAGLE
Darwin’s job as naturalist aboard the Beagle gave him the opportunity to observe the various geological formations found on different continents and islands along the way, as well as a huge variety of fossils and living organisms. In his geological observations, Darwin was most impressed with the effect that natural forces had on shaping the earth’s surface.
At the time, most geologists adhered to the so-called catastrophist theory that the earth had experienced a succession of creations of animal and plant life, and that each creation had been destroyed by a sudden catastrophe, such as an upheaval or convulsion of the earth’s surface (see Geology: History of Geology: Geology in the 18th and 19th Centuries). According to this theory, the most recent catastrophe, Noah’s flood, wiped away all life except those forms taken into the ark. The rest were visible only in the form of fossils. In the view of the catastrophists, species were individually created and immutable, that is, unchangeable for all time.
The catastrophist viewpoint (but not the immutability of species) was challenged by the English geologist Sir Charles Lyell in his three-volume work Principles of Geology (1830-1833). Lyell maintained that the earth’s surface is undergoing constant change, the result of natural forces operating uniformly over long periods.
Aboard the Beagle, Darwin found himself fitting many of his observations into Lyell’s general uniformitarian view. Beyond that, however, he realized that some of his own observations of fossils and living plants and animals cast doubt on the Lyell-supported view that species were specially created. He noted, for example, that certain fossils of supposedly extinct species closely resembled living species in the same geographical area. In the Galápagos Islands, off the coast of Ecuador, he also observed that each island supported its own form of tortoise, mockingbird, and finch; the various forms were closely related but differed in structure and eating habits from island to island. Both observations raised the question, for Darwin, of possible links between distinct but similar species.
III THEORY OF NATURAL SELECTION
After returning to England in 1836, Darwin began recording his ideas about changeability of species in his Notebooks on the Transmutation of Species. Darwin’s explanation for how organisms evolved was brought into sharp focus after he read An Essay on the Principle of Population (1798), by the British economist Thomas Robert Malthus, who explained how human populations remain in balance. Malthus argued that any increase in the availability of food for basic human survival could not match the geometrical rate of population growth. The latter, therefore, had to be checked by natural limitations such as famine and disease, or by social actions such as war.
Darwin immediately applied Malthus’s argument to animals and plants, and by 1838 he had arrived at a sketch of a theory of evolution through natural selection (see Species and Speciation). For the next two decades he worked on his theory and other natural history projects. (Darwin was independently wealthy and never had to earn an income.) In 1839 he married his first cousin, Emma Wedgwood, and soon after, moved to a small estate, Down House, outside London. There he and his wife had ten children, three of whom died in infancy.
Darwin’s theory was first announced in 1858 in a paper presented at the same time as one by Alfred Russel Wallace, a young naturalist who had come independently to the theory of natural selection. Darwin’s complete theory was published in 1859, in On the Origin of Species. Often referred to as the “book that shook the world,” the Origin sold out on the first day of publication and subsequently went through six editions.
Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural selection is essentially that, because of the food-supply problem described by Malthus, the young born to any species intensely compete for survival. Those young that survive to produce the next generation tend to embody favorable natural variations (however slight the advantage may be)—the process of natural selection—and these variations are passed on by heredity. Therefore, each generation will improve adaptively over the preceding generations, and this gradual and continuous process is the source of the evolution of species. Natural selection is only part of Darwin’s vast conceptual scheme; he also introduced the concept that all related organisms are descended from common ancestors. Moreover, he provided additional support for the older concept that the earth itself is not static but evolving.
IV REACTIONS TO THE THEORY
The reaction to the Origin was immediate. Some biologists argued that Darwin could not prove his hypothesis. Others criticized Darwin’s concept of variation, arguing that he could explain neither the origin of variations nor how they were passed to succeeding generations. This particular scientific objection was not answered until the birth of modern genetics in the early 20th century (see Heredity; Mendel’s Laws). In fact, many scientists continued to express doubts for the following 50 to 80 years. The most publicized attacks on Darwin’s ideas, however, came not from scientists but from religious opponents. The thought that living things had evolved by natural processes denied the special creation of humankind and seemed to place humanity on a plane with the animals; both of these ideas were serious contradictions to orthodox theological opinion.
V LATER YEARS
Darwin spent the rest of his life expanding on different aspects of problems raised in the Origin. His later books—including The Variation of Animals and Plants Under Domestication (1868), The Descent of Man (1871), and The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (1872)—were detailed expositions of topics that had been confined to small sections of the Origin. The importance of his work was well recognized by his contemporaries; Darwin was elected to the Royal Society (1839) and the French Academy of Sciences (1878). He was also honored by burial in Westminster Abbey after he died in Downe, Kent, on April 19, 1882.
See also Evolution.

Christopher Columbus

Christopher Columbus
I INTRODUCTION
Christopher Columbus (1451-1506), Italian Spanish navigator who sailed west across the Atlantic Ocean in search of a route to Asia but achieved fame by making landfall in the Americas instead.
On October 12, 1492, two worlds unknown to each other met for the first time on a small island in the Caribbean Sea. While on a voyage for Spain in search of a direct sea route from Europe to Asia, Christopher Columbus unintentionally discovered the Americas. However, in four separate voyages to the Caribbean from 1492 to 1504, he remained convinced that he had found the lands that Marco Polo reached in his overland travels to China at the end of the 13th century. To Columbus it was only a matter of time before a passage was found through the Caribbean islands to the fabled cities of Asia.
Columbus was not the first European to reach the Americas—Vikings from Scandinavia had briefly settled on the North American coast, in what is now Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada, in the late 10th or early 11th century. However, Columbus’s explorations had a profound impact on the world. They led directly to the opening of the western hemisphere to European colonization; to large-scale exchanges of plants, animals, cultures, and ideas between the two worlds; and, on a darker note, to the deaths of millions of indigenous American peoples from war, forced labor, and disease.
II EUROPE IN THE TIME OF COLUMBUS
Understanding Christopher Columbus is difficult without understanding the world into which he was born. The 15th century was a century of change, and many events that occurred during that time profoundly affected European society. Many of these events were driven by the centuries-long conflict between Christians and Muslims, followers of the religion known as Islam.
The event that had the most far-reaching effects on Europe in the 15th century was the fall of the city of Constantinople (modern İstanbul, Turkey) to the Muslim Ottoman Empire. Constantinople had been the capital of the Orthodox Christian Byzantine Empire for centuries, and it was an important center for trade between Europe and Asia. In 1453 the Ottoman Empire, which had already conquered much of southeastern Europe, captured the city, closing an important trade route from Europe to the east (see Ottoman Empire). European merchants could still buy Asian goods from Muslims in places such as Alexandria, Egypt. However, Europeans longed for a sea route to Asia that would allow them to bypass the Muslims and purchase Asian products directly. In addition, European princes and kings quickly realized that the first nation to find such a route could become very wealthy by monopolizing the highly profitable Asian trade.
The first European nation to begin actively seeking a sea route to Asia was Portugal. The Portuguese had already begun exploring Africa in the early 1400s, and in 1415 they invaded northern Africa and conquered the Muslim commercial center of Ceuta on the Strait of Gibraltar. This gained the Portuguese access to the lucrative African trade, which, until that time, had been dominated by the Muslims. Under the tutelage of Prince Henry the Navigator, who established a school for navigators in southern Portugal shortly after the Ceuta invasion, the Portuguese began exploring the western coast of Africa, hoping to find a route to the riches of Asia by going around the southern tip of the continent. Other nations, not wanting to be left behind, began sponsoring voyages of exploration as well. Into this world, full of the excitement of exploration and discovery, Christopher Columbus was born.
III CHILDHOOD AND EARLY YEARS
Biographical facts on Columbus vary from author to author. However, most scholars generally agree that he was born in the Italian port city of Genoa, on the Ligurian Sea (an arm of the Mediterranean Sea), between August 25 and October 31, 1451. His name in Italian was Cristoforo Colombo, which is translated into English as Christopher Columbus, into Spanish as Cristóbal Colón, and into Portuguese as Christovão Colom. Columbus used the Portuguese version of his name while in Portugal and the Spanish version after moving to Spain in 1485.
Columbus’s father was Domenico Colombo, a wool weaver who was also involved in local politics. His mother was Suzanna Fontanarossa, the daughter of a wool weaver. The eldest of five children, Christopher had three brothers—Bartholomew, Giovanni Pellegrino, and Giacomo—and one sister, Bianchinetta. The entire family moved to the nearby port city of Savona, west of Genoa, in 1470.
Although how much formal education Columbus received as a child is not known, the schools of Italian craft guilds (which Columbus, as the son of a wool weaver, would have attended) did offer a rudimentary level of reading and writing. As a boy, Christopher joined his father in the family business of wool processing and selling. He may have worked as a clerk in a Genoese bookshop as well. However, as did many other young men who grew up in a major seaport, Columbus soon began a life of seafaring.
A Early Seafaring Career
Beginning his seagoing career at age 14, Columbus served on various ships in various roles, including messenger, common sailor, and, perhaps, even as a 21-year-old privateer. Columbus’s son Ferdinand stated in History of the Life and Deeds of Christopher Columbus that in 1472 Columbus was given command of a ship on a privateering expedition to Tunis in northern Africa. In a lost letter, Columbus supposedly related to his son how René I, duke of the French province of Anjou, had commissioned Columbus to make a surprise attack on a large Spanish ship sailing off the coast of North Africa. Most historians doubt, however, that Columbus ever received command of the expedition.
Much more credible, though, is a subsequent expedition. In 1474 Columbus was hired as a sailor on a ship bound for the island of Khíos in the Aegean Sea, an arm of the eastern Mediterranean Sea. This was his first long voyage and must have proved profitable, because after spending a year on the island he was able to become economically independent from his family. This voyage also represents a great irony in the life of Columbus—the trip to this small island in the Aegean brought him the closest he would ever get to Asia.
On August 13, 1476, a Genoese commercial expedition of five ships bound for England gave Columbus his first opportunity to leave the Mediterranean Sea and sail into the Atlantic Ocean. But it was an inauspicious beginning for Columbus: According to tradition, the entire fleet was attacked by French privateers off Cape Saint Vincent on the southwestern tip of Portugal. Both sides lost ships; Columbus, one of the unfortunate ones whose ship was burned, had no escape other than to swim for the Portuguese coast. He made it the 10 km (6 mi) to shore by clinging to wreckage. After regaining his strength in the port of Lagos, Columbus made his way to Lisbon and its large community of Genoese merchants and shipbuilders. He was 25 years old.
B Marriage
By 1477 Columbus was settled in Lisbon. Since the beginning of Portuguese voyages of exploration in the middle of the 14th century, Lisbon had become a haven for explorers, adventurers, entrepreneurs, merchants, and any others who saw their fortunes tied to the trade winds and ocean currents. Columbus’s brother Bartholomew worked in Lisbon as a mapmaker, and for a time the brothers worked together as draftsmen and book collectors. Later that year, Columbus set sail on a convoy loaded with goods to be sold in northern Atlantic ports.
In 1478 or 1479 Columbus met and married Felipa Perestrello e Moniz, the daughter of a respected, though relatively poor, noble family. Felipa’s father, Bartolomeo Perestrello, who was already deceased when Columbus met Felipa, had served as governor of Porto Santo in the Madeira Islands, a Portuguese possession off the northwest coast of Africa. Soon after their marriage, the newlyweds accompanied the rest of the family back to Porto Santo, where Felipa’s oldest brother took over the governorship. Columbus and Felipa moved to the larger island of Madeira in 1480 or 1481, soon after their son Diego was born. It is believed that Felipa died soon thereafter.
C Later Expeditions
In late 1481 or early 1482 Columbus sailed to the Portuguese fortress of Elmina, in what is now Ghana, on the western coast of Africa. Columbus was impressed with the riches Africa offered, especially gold. In addition, like all good navigators, he was eager to learn about winds and ocean currents from the local pilots and sailors. In the waters off the coast of Africa and the nearby Canary Islands Columbus first observed the ocean phenomenon known as the Canaries Current (see Atlantic Ocean: Currents). Knowledge of this fast-moving current running west of the Canary Islands could well have been the reason that Columbus later chose to start his crossing of the Atlantic in the latitude of the Canaries, far south of Spain or Portugal.
IV THE “ENTERPRISE OF THE INDIES”
The experiences of these years led directly to the genesis of Columbus’s plan to reach the east by going west, what he called his “Enterprise of the Indies.” (To Europeans in Columbus’s day, all lands to the east of the Indus River in Asia were “the Indies.”) Inspiration and assistance for his plan came from a number of sources. First, his marriage into the Portuguese nobility proved helpful because, although relatively poor, the family still had connections to the Portuguese court. Columbus apparently gained access to his father-in-law’s papers and found a wealth of information, including maps, charts revealing ocean currents, interviews with sailors, and stories about objects that had drifted to the coast of the Madeira Islands from the west.
Also contributing to the formation of Columbus’s plan were his association with the Genoese community in Portugal and his expeditions to Africa. Both furthered his knowledge of Atlantic waters, and his trips to Africa brought him close to the Canary Islands, giving him knowledge of the Canaries Current. Also, while in ports in England, Ireland, Iceland, and other northern regions, Columbus may have heard stories of lands to the west of Iceland. Although the histories of the Vikings, who settled Iceland and Greenland in the 9th and 10th centuries, never became part of the knowledge base of medieval Europeans, it is believed that stories of their encounters with unknown islands in the northern Atlantic were widespread. Columbus’s genius was his remarkable ability to gather information from around the Mediterranean and the Atlantic and combine his own experiences with ancient theories from books in a way that few navigators could.
Columbus’s idea of sailing west to get to the east was not original with him, nor did he ever claim that it was. Columbus drew upon science and knowledge accumulated over thousands of years. In Greek and Roman times, for example, geographers theorized that there was only one body of water on the surface of the Earth and that it connected Europe and Asia. If so, one could theoretically sail from the west to get to the east. Only the distance was disputed.
Columbus’s ideas of the size of the earth and the distance between Europe and Asia were based on the descriptions contained in several geographic works. These works included the 2nd-century manuscript Geography by Ptolemy; Imago Mundi (Image of the World) by Pierre d’Ailly, published in the early 1480s; and The Travels of Marco Polo, written in 1298 after Marco Polo returned from China. Unfortunately, his ideas did not prove particularly accurate.
Columbus founded his theory on two mistaken propositions—that the Asian continent stretched much farther to the east than it actually does, and that Japan lay about 2,400 km (about 1,500 mi) east of the Asian mainland. Columbus also greatly underestimated the circumference of the earth. Columbus calculated that the Canary Islands lay only about 4,440 km (about 2,760 mi) from Japan; the actual distance is about 19,000 km (about 12,000 mi). Similar errors were made by other learned men of the time, including the Florentine geographer Paulo de Pozzo Toscanelli, with whom Columbus may have corresponded. Neither Columbus nor anyone else in Europe suspected that two vast continents lay in the way of a westward passage to Asia.
V SEARCH FOR PATRONAGE
A Portugal
Columbus decided to seek patronage for his plan first in Portugal. With few interruptions, the Portuguese crown had encouraged and supported exploration for over a century, and nearly all new discoveries in the Atlantic were Portuguese. Furthermore, it was well known that the reigning monarch, King John II, was personally committed to sailing around Africa and discovering a direct sea route to the Indian Ocean and Asia.
The king’s strong support of geographical exploration made him a logical choice for Columbus to approach. In addition, Columbus had been in Portugal for seven years and had married a Portuguese noblewoman. According to tradition, in 1484 the king listened to Columbus’s proposal to sail to the east by going west and summarily passed it on to his Council of Geographical Affairs. But after a public hearing, the council denied the request on the grounds that it was too expensive, that Columbus was wrong about distances and measurements, and that such a plan contradicted Portugal’s commitment to finding an eastward route to Asia by traveling around Africa.
B Spain
After his disappointment in Portugal, Columbus took his young son and moved to Spain in 1485 with the intention of presenting his plan to the Spanish monarchs, King Ferdinand V and Queen Isabella I. Spain lagged far behind Portugal in exploration of the Atlantic. The two powers had engaged in open hostilities since Spain had begun to dispute some of Portugal’s claims in Africa and to Atlantic island groups, such as the Canaries and the Azores. In 1479 Spain had gained control of the Canary Islands, although Portugal did not abandon its claims. A fragile peace existed because neither side wanted to go to war over the issue. According to tradition, one of the reasons the Portuguese king rejected Columbus’s plan was his concern over aggravating the situation with Spain.
One of Columbus’s first stops in Spain was the monastery of La Rábida in the southern port town of Palos de la Frontera, not far from the Portuguese border. At the monastery Columbus found not only a boarding place for his son Diego but also support from the friars, several of whom became great believers in his vision. One of them, Friar Antonio Marchena, spent many hours discussing geography with Columbus. He also helped shape Columbus’s plans by directing him to the writings of the ancients and of church authorities who were known to support the idea of a westward crossing of the ocean. Through Marchena, Columbus was introduced to powerful noblemen as well, including Friar Juan Pérez, one of the guardians of the monastery—and the confessor of Queen Isabella. Pérez introduced Columbus to the court of the Spanish monarchs.
Columbus moved to Sevilla (Seville) in 1485, and between May 1486 and September 1487, he was maintained at the expense of the queen. Although interested in his ideas, the king and queen were in the midst of a protracted war to conquer the province of Granada in southern Spain, which had been held by the Moors, a Muslim group, since 711. This war left the monarchs little time to consider Columbus’s plan. Finally, in 1487, Columbus presented his project to a committee of experts called to hear the case. The committee raised numerous objections, asked many questions, and, in the end, rejected the plan. Among the reasons given for the rejection was that the ocean was simply too large to cross.
While waiting for the war in Granada to end, Columbus established a liaison with a young peasant woman named Beatriz Enríquez de Arana. During this period of great despair, Columbus’s one comfort was his love for Beatriz. Although the two never married, in 1488 they had a son named Ferdinand, who later accompanied his father on his final voyage to the Americas.
In the last weeks of 1491 Columbus made his final appeal to the Spanish monarchs in the royal camp as the monarchs prepared for their final battle with the Moors in Granada. But again his plan was rejected. Columbus had successfully won over many of the learned scholars and scientific advisers, but this time the rejection was due primarily to his excessive demands for rewards. His requested payment (one-tenth of all riches from the Indies), and his demands for the titles of admiral, which would give him the right to judge commercial disputes; of viceroy, which would make him the personal representative of the monarchs; and of governor, which would enable him to act as supreme civil and military authority in any new lands he discovered, caused the king and queen to flatly refuse the project. According to tradition, as Columbus rode away on his mule, Ferdinand’s treasurer, Luis de Santángel, interceded on Columbus’s behalf. Arguing that the investment was small considering the potential reward, Santángel convinced the king and queen to reverse their decision. A court official was dispatched on horseback to bring Columbus back. After several more weeks of negotiating a contract, in April 1492 Columbus left for Palos de la Frontera and his rendezvous with history.
VI THE FIRST VOYAGE (1492-1493)
The people of Palos were ordered to provide and equip two caravels (small, light sailing ships). The first, owned by Cristóbal Quintero, was called the Pinta; the second, owned by Juan Niño, was officially named the Santa Clara but known as the Niña. The third ship, a small, round ship with a large hold, most likely a type of vessel known as a nao, was Columbus’s flagship. It was called the Santa María and was owned by Juan de la Cosa. Little is known about the actual construction of the ships, but evidence suggests that the Niña and the Pinta were small, about 54 metric tons each and 21 to 24 m (70 to 80 ft) in length. The Santa María was 80 to 90 metric tons and not much longer than the other two. Of the three, the Pinta was the fastest.
Initially Columbus had difficulty recruiting a crew because many sailors feared a voyage into the unknown. The royal secretary tried to help by offering freedom to any convict who enlisted. Some experienced seamen objected to this plan, but in the end only a few convicts accepted. More than anything, the friars of La Rábida and Martín Alonso Pinzón, an experienced sea captain from Palos, persuaded local sailors to join the expedition. Two other Pinzón brothers also joined the voyage; all were commanding officers.
About 40 men including Columbus sailed on the Santa María. Between 20 and 30 men were each on the Pinta and Niña. Most were Spanish, with the largest number coming from around Palos. The crew was made up largely of experienced seamen and a few government officials. But the crew included no priests, no soldiers, and no settlers—this was a voyage of exploration and discovery.
A Life Aboard Ship
Little is known about life aboard the ships, but it could not have been comfortable. There were no crew’s quarters and no mess halls. Only the captains and pilots had cabins, and they were very small. At night the crew slept wherever they could find a vacant spot, tying themselves down to prevent being tossed into the sea. Prayers, songs, stories, chores, eating, and waiting filled the sailors’ days. Stargazing under a new, unknown sky filled their restless nights.
The ships carried enough provisions for a year, at a time when two weeks at sea was a long voyage. Supplies on board included foodstuffs, such as water, dried fish, salt meat, live pigs and hens (to be killed aboard ship), rice, cheese, and figs; navigational instruments, including nautical almanacs, charts, compasses, magnets, hourglasses, and rulers; and trade items, such as glass beads, brass rings, knitted caps, gold, silver, pearls, and spices.
B Navigation
Navigation in the 15th century was far from an exact science, although several navigational tools and aids were available. The most important navigational aids were compasses, astrolabes, hourglasses, maps, and charts. Although celestial navigation (finding direction by checking the positions of stars and other heavenly bodies) was the favored method while sailing under familiar skies, a technique known as dead reckoning was more dependable on voyages in unknown seas.
Using an astrolabe, a metal disk inscribed with a map of the major celestial bodies, a mariner could tell location simply by positioning the stars on the astrolabe to match the stars in the sky. But the astrolabe worked only when the skies were clear and the positions of the stars were known. On cloudy days or when the stars in the sky were unfamiliar, celestial navigation and the astrolabe were ineffective.
In dead reckoning, the technique often used for traveling in unknown waters, the position of the ship was determined by starting with its last known location. Then, by calculating what direction the ship was going, how fast it was going, and how much time had passed, the pilot could come up with a new position. Pilots could calculate the distance they had traveled in an hour or a day by dropping a floating object in the water at the front of the ship and timing how long it took to get to the back of the ship. Knowing how long the ship was, the pilot could calculate how fast the ship was moving and, thus, how far they had traveled.
Columbus preferred dead reckoning over celestial navigation and was never comfortable with the astrolabe and other devices for navigating using the heavenly bodies. Above all, he was masterful in interpreting the signs of nature, such as the behavior of birds, the smell of the air, the color of the sky, the condition of the seas, the pressure he felt in his joints, the appearance of floating debris, and more. Successful navigators survived by “reading” nature in this way. Columbus was expert at this and could even predict hurricanes accurately.
C The Westward Journey
At daybreak on August 3, 1492, the small flotilla of ships left Palos de la Frontera for parts unknown. At the age of 41, standing on the bow of the Santa María, watching the coast slowly slip below the horizon, Columbus left behind on dry land a struggle that had lasted a quarter of his life. He was now in his element, doing what he had dreamed about for the past ten years.
After a trip to the Canary Islands, where the rudder of the Pinta was repaired, the voyagers departed the known world on September 6, 1492. Throughout the voyage the ships traveled primarily westward. The choice of sailing from the Canary Islands proved to be a good one, as the Canaries Current speeded their journey. On September 25 it was thought that land was sighted, but it was nothing more than low-lying clouds. As the trip lengthened, many of the crew feared that the strong daily winds would prevent them from getting back to Spain. Columbus had difficulty with his crew at times, and he found it hard to work with the Pinzóns, especially Martín Alonso, who had much more experience than Columbus. However, there is little evidence that the crew was ever close to mutiny. Moreover, the story that Columbus tried to deceive the crew by keeping two sets of logs, one that showed the distance they had traveled as much shorter than it actually was, is only legend.
Two hours past midnight on the morning of October 12 a lookout named Rodrigo de Triana (sometimes called Juan Rodríguez Bermejo) on the Pinta cried out “Tierra! Tierra!” (“Land! Land!”). A reward of a pension of 10,000 maravedis per year (an able seaman could earn about 12,000 maravedis per year) was to go to he who saw land first. Rather cruelly, Columbus pocketed the money himself, claiming that he had seen several lights the night before.
D First Contact
On October 12, 1492, Columbus and a handful of the excited but weary voyagers set foot on land after 36 days of sailing. Columbus raised the royal standard, claiming the island for Spain, and two of the captains carried banners decorated with green crosses and letters representing Ferdinand and Isabella. Soon the curious islanders, with some trepidation, came out of their hiding places and greeted the visitors.
The location of the actual landfall site is still in question. Called Guanahaní by the Taínos, the island was renamed San Salvador (“Holy Savior”) by Columbus, but no one today knows for sure which island it was. Most favor either Watling Island (renamed San Salvador in 1926 to honor Columbus’s discovery) or Samana Cay in the Bahamas. Ten or more islands in the Bahamas fit the physical description as recorded by Columbus in his journal, which described the island simply as large and flat, with bright green trees and a great deal of water.
The islanders were friendly and open to trade with the sailors. They traded anything for anything: balls of spun cotton, parrots, and spears for the sailors’ glass beads, red caps, and trinkets. Called Taínos by the Spaniards, the islanders belonged to a larger language family called the Arawak. The Taínos showed neither fear nor knowledge of Spanish swords and cut themselves while examining the weapons. Most interesting to the explorers, however, was the fact that the islanders had small pieces of gold pierced in their noses. In addition, they told Columbus that the inhabitants of other islands wore gold bands around their arms and legs. They also described countless islands, all like theirs. The Spaniards, believing that they had arrived in the Indies, soon called all islanders “Indians.”
On the third day, Columbus, accompanied by several Taíno guides, left San Salvador to explore other islands. By the end of October, Columbus reached the coast of Cuba. After sailing north and then south along its coast, he was convinced that it was one of the lands described by Marco Polo. Despite the fact that the local pilots told him it was an island, Columbus convinced himself that Cuba was a promontory of China. Shortly after this event, Martín Alonso Pinzón suddenly sailed off in the Pinta without leave. Although historians disagree on the reasons why, many suspect that Pinzón, disgruntled with the lack of riches that had been discovered to that point, went off in search of gold.
Crossing the Windward Passage to the east of Cuba, Columbus sailed to another large island, which he called La Isla Española (“The Spanish Island,” modern Hispaniola). For a month he cruised the coast, stopping occasionally to inspect the land and the people. On one of these excursions, Columbus met and befriended a young Taíno chief by the name of Guacanagarí. After a brief meeting aboard ship, arrangements were made for another meeting, this one on Christmas Day, December 25, at the chief’s residence in a nearby village. Before the meeting could take place, however, the Santa María struck a reef off the coast and grounded. Over the next few days, the crew of the two ships and Taínos in canoes sent by Guacanagarí removed everything that could be salvaged. They constructed a fort out of the lumber of the ship and stored enough supplies to last a year. Thirty-nine men stayed behind in the fort, the first European settlement in the Americas since the Vikings had landed in what is now Newfoundland and Labrador some 500 years earlier. But the settlement, named Villa de la Navidad (“Christmas Town”), would prove no more enduring than had those of the Vikings.
E Return to Spain
On January 6 the Pinta rejoined the expedition, and shortly thereafter the two remaining vessels headed home. Upon leaving the Caribbean, Columbus again had the good fortune of finding an ocean current, just as he had in the Canaries. Entering the Gulf Stream, his ships sailed far enough north to catch the prevailing westerly winds. But the return trip was not uneventful. As the ships approached Europe, they encountered a terrible storm. The Pinta became separated from the Niña and arrived at the port of Bayona on the northwest coast of Spain several days before the Niña made landfall. Columbus limped into Lisbon, where he was apprehended by agents of King John II. Although suspicious of Columbus’s story, the king accused him of violating Portuguese sovereignty in the Atlantic, which had been extended to all lands south and west of the Canary Islands by a series of papal decrees beginning in the 1450s. Afraid that the king might not release him, Columbus sent a secret messenger to the Spanish court relating his experiences and his detention. By mid-March he was free to return to Spain. On March 15, 1493, at noon, the Niña entered the harbor of Palos de la Frontera, 32 weeks after leaving from the same port. Although Pinzón had arrived in Spain earlier, he did not reach Palos until several hours after Columbus. Very sick, Pinzón died before he had a chance to report to the king.
Columbus alone held the stage. When he appeared before Ferdinand and Isabella at the royal palace in Barcelona, he was accorded the honor of being invited to sit with them and to eat at the same table. With a parade of exotic islanders and colorful parrots, he told his tale of the voyage and of the islands he discovered, describing their lush vegetation and strange inhabitants. He also showed the gold he had brought home, some of it in the form of crowns, masks, and ornaments, and some in the form of nuggets and dust.
All of his rewards were reconfirmed and he was addressed by his new title, “Admiral of the Ocean Seas.” He received 1,000 doubloons, the equivalent of 345,000 maravedis. Columbus had delivered what he had promised—at least everybody at the Spanish court thought so—and as such he owned the day. He urged the sovereigns to equip another expedition as soon as possible, promising gold, spices, and other riches. The admiral had little difficulty persuading the Spanish royalty to sponsor a second voyage.
To prevent the Portuguese from attempting to claim his discoveries, Columbus had sent a letter to Pope Alexander VI (himself a Spaniard) as soon as he arrived in Spain. His letter explained his discoveries in as much detail as he felt he could reveal. The pope issued a papal bull, or decree, in May 1493 granting control of every island Columbus had discovered to Spain. At Columbus’s urging, an imaginary line, called the Line of Demarcation, was drawn in the ocean 100 leagues (about 483 km/about 300 mi) west of the Cape Verde Islands. It was declared that all undiscovered land west of the line not belonging to a Christian sovereign belonged to Spain; anything east of the line went to Portugal. This declaration resulted in an immediate conflict because of the grant that had been made to Portugal in 1481. A resolution was reached in the following year when the sovereigns of Spain and Portugal signed the Treaty of Tordesillas. In this treaty the Line of Demarcation was moved to 370 leagues (about 1,780 km/about 1,110 mi) west of the Cape Verde Islands.
VII THE SECOND VOYAGE (1493-1496)
The second voyage departed from Cádiz on September 25, 1493, and was of a much larger scale—17 ships and about 1,200 colonists accompanied Columbus. Included in the crew were two of Columbus’s brothers, Bartholomew and Giacomo (who, after moving to Spain, used the Spanish version of his name, Diego). The purposes of the voyage were to return to La Navidad in Hispaniola to relieve the men left behind from the first voyage, settle more colonists on the islands, and explore and claim other islands.
To quicken the departure, in case another nation might attempt an expedition, the sovereigns did not hesitate to provide Columbus with whatever supplies he requested. The cargo included horses, cattle, donkeys, sheep, goats, pigs, dogs, cats, chickens, grain, seed, and all the supplies needed for sailing, fending off attacks, building settlements, and setting up an administration overseas.
The fleet left Cádiz and, as before, stopped at the Canary Islands to make repairs and to store more meat, wood, and water. After leaving the Canary island of Hierro, the fleet took a more southerly route than before. On November 2, 21 days later, land was sighted. This new group of smaller islands (known as the Lesser Antilles) were south and east of the large islands of Cuba and Hispaniola (part of the Greater Antilles).
Discovering the islands of Guadeloupe and Puerto Rico along the way, Columbus reached Hispaniola at the end of November. The sailors fired a cannon to announce their arrival, but no one returned the salute. To their horror, they discovered that the entire settlement of La Navidad had been massacred and the site burned to the ground. As they searched for any trace of their compatriots, the newcomers found a mass grave in which several Spaniards had been buried. They discovered also that the village of Columbus’s friend Guacanagarí had been burned and destroyed. No one will ever know for sure what happened at La Navidad. The popular theory is that local islanders destroyed the settlement out of disgust with the Europeans’ greed and avarice.
A Founding of Isabela
A new settlement, Isabela, was built a short distance east of La Navidad. Some of the settlers, however, balked at the prospect of doing manual labor. Many were ill, and others were more interested in finding gold and other riches than in building a settlement. To keep the colonists happy, Columbus organized an expedition to search for gold. When little gold was found, the settlers grew restive, and he decided on a policy of forced labor. Local peoples were put to work on the settlement. Enslavement of the indigenous peoples had not been one of the stated goals of the expedition and, in fact, it was offensive to the queen. Yet Columbus justified it on the grounds that it would be profitable.
Despite his policy of enslavement, Columbus did not find his first real riches on Hispaniola until 1496. Taking part in an expedition into the interior of the island, Columbus and his men forced the inhabitants of the region to gather loose gold. Within a few days they had collected about 10 kg (about 22 lb) of the precious metal. Although Columbus was impressed with the beauty of the Caribbean, he did not come looking for that. With incredible single-mindedness, the admiral was looking for riches and a doorway to Asia, to the land of Marco Polo, and hoping that Hispaniola might be Japan, and Cuba part of China.
Before returning to Spain in 1496, Columbus explored more of Cuba and discovered Jamaica. The admiral was determined to prove that Cuba belonged to mainland Asia and was part of the empire of the Mongols. Although he never sailed completely around the island, he did force his men to take a solemn oath that Cuba was a promontory of Asia.
B Worsening Relations
As time wore on, relations between the Spaniards and the indigenous peoples of Hispaniola began to deteriorate. Instead of searching for provisions while Columbus was off exploring other islands, the men left behind raided Taíno villages in search of riches. With little hope for anything more than poverty and unhappiness, disgruntled settlers began returning home. Many of the men were sick, many died, and most were unhappy with the lack of opportunity. The fact that Columbus had left his brother Diego behind as governor of Isabela contributed to the admiral’s problems with the settlers. Diego was not an administrator. The colonists repeatedly protested against his ineffective rule and resented him for being an Italian. Some of the settlers began sending letters back to relatives and officials in Spain complaining about the conditions and the leadership. In October 1495 a Spanish official arrived with a royal commission to investigate Columbus and the charges that had been made by the discontented settlers. On March 10, 1496, Columbus had no choice but to return home hoping to preempt any royal inquiries into the complaints of the settlers. Leaving his brothers Bartholomew and Diego in charge of the colony, Columbus boarded a ship for Spain.
Ferdinand and Isabella gave Columbus a friendly welcome upon his return and listened with interest to his story about the discovery of new islands with great potential. They appeared grateful and continued to show him favor but waited more than a year before approving a third voyage.
VIII THE THIRD VOYAGE (1498-1500)
Having been cleared of any wrongdoing, and with the full confidence of the monarchs, Columbus left Sevilla with a fleet of six ships on May 30, 1498. Separating the expedition, Columbus sent one part to aid the settlement at Hispaniola, while he took the other part and sailed farther south than ever before. Departing from the Cape Verde Islands, he crossed the ocean in hope of discovering new islands in the southwest, toward the equator.
Columbus had the misfortune on this trip of entering the doldrums, a dead space in the ocean where wind and ocean currents die and the heat is unbearable. After a little more than a week, the crew was saved by a wind that pushed them westward. Changing course to the north brought Columbus to an island with three mountain peaks, which he named Trinidad. From there they sailed west into the Gulf of Paria and then to the coast of South America, where they found the mouth of the Orinoco River, the largest river any of the crew had ever seen. Seeing the huge amount of water flowing into the sea, Columbus believed that he had found the Garden of Eden—in those days people thought that all great rivers flowed from there. Without giving in to the idea that he was someplace other than Asia, he did manage to report, “I believe this is a very large continent which until now has remained unknown.”
After several weeks of exploring Trinidad, the Gulf of Paria, and nearby Margarita Island, Columbus headed for Hispaniola, where his brother Bartholomew had begun building a new settlement. Bartholomew had decided to move the settlement from Isabela, which had a poor water supply, to a new site near a place where the Spaniards had discovered gold mines. The new settlement was named Santo Domingo. When Columbus arrived at the new settlement at the end of August 1498, however, he found not a city at work but a country at war. Many of the settlers, upset about the lack of opportunity and unwilling to put the effort into building a long-lasting colony, were rebelling. Two factions had formed: those who were loyal to the Columbus family, and the rebels, led by Francisco Roldán, whom Columbus had appointed mayor of Isabela before returning to Spain after his second voyage. It took two years to put down the revolt and restore order. To end the rebellion Columbus had to agree to give each of the rebels a plot of land and the islanders who lived on it.
Despite these measures, however, conditions in the colony continued to deteriorate over the next several months. In great anguish over his inability to bring peace to the island, Columbus requested that the Spanish king and queen send a judge to the island to deal with the situation. In response, the monarchs sent Francisco de Bobadilla. Unfortunately for Columbus, Bobadilla carried a decree stripping Columbus of the titles of governor and viceroy and appointing Bobadilla governor of the Spanish possessions in the Americas. Shortly after his arrival, Bobadilla seized Columbus’s house and records and sent an order to have Columbus and his brothers found and arrested. They were placed in chains and returned to Spain. Columbus refused to have the chains removed until the monarchs themselves issued the order to do so. He arrived in Cádiz in November 1500. Upon hearing of the plight of the admiral, the sovereigns immediately ordered the chains removed and he and his brothers freed.
On December 17, 1500, Columbus went before the royal court. The king and queen instructed that whatever items were taken from Columbus at his arrest be restored to him. The monarchs would not reinstate Columbus’s titles, however. Instead they removed Bobadilla and replaced him with Nicolás de Ovando. This was, however, neither victory nor vindication for Columbus. With his titles annulled, the former governor spent the next two years in despair and humiliation.
Meanwhile, a flurry of exploration had taken place in the Caribbean Sea, the Atlantic Ocean, and the Indian Ocean. In South America, ships reached as far south as Río de la Plata, which forms the southern border of what is now Uruguay, and far north along the coast of North America. Columbus clung desperately to his original theory that the islands he had discovered were part of Asia, but he was alone in his belief. Other navigators saw it as a world hitherto unknown. Whatever it was, colonial activity in the Americas took on a life of its own, and Columbus could do very little to alter its course.
In 1488 the Portuguese navigator Bartolomeu Dias had successfully rounded the southern tip of Africa, and in 1499 Vasco da Gama had returned to Lisbon after a successful trip around Africa and across the Indian Ocean to India. This gave the Portuguese their direct trade route to Asia and finally outflanked the Muslims who controlled the overland trade routes between Europe and Asia. For Columbus, Portugal’s success was a new opportunity, and the Spanish monarchs were again receptive to his vision of finding a strait to mainland China. Rather than retiring with a pension and an estate, perhaps even a castle, Columbus suggested yet another voyage, his fourth.
IX THE FOURTH VOYAGE (1502-1504)
The king and queen made it clear that the purpose of Columbus’s fourth voyage was to search for gold, silver, precious stones, spices, and other riches. But above all, for fear of aggravating the situation in the colony, they forbade Columbus to return to Hispaniola unless absolutely necessary on his return to Spain.
Columbus’s fleet of four ships and 150 men set sail from Cádiz on May 9, 1502. On this fourth and final voyage, Columbus was accompanied by his son Fernando, age 14, and his brother Bartholomew. Columbus, now 50 years old, could not captain his fleet because of ill health and poor eyesight, but seamen loyal to him were honored to serve the admiral once again.
After stopping to take on wood and water on Grand Canary, in the Canary Islands, the expedition began its crossing on May 25. They stopped first at the Caribbean island of Martinique, where they provisioned the ship again. Then, despite having been expressly forbidden to do so by the king and queen, Columbus headed directly for Hispaniola, where he dropped anchor at Santo Domingo on June 29.
Columbus felt this action was necessary for two reasons. First, one of his ships was in disrepair and he wished to purchase another. Second, and more pressing, was an oncoming hurricane. In a message to Governor Ovando seeking permission to enter the port, Columbus advised him not to allow any ships to depart for Spain. Ovando refused to allow Columbus and his fleet to enter the port and did not take the admiral’s advice. Columbus took refuge in a small harbor nearby and was saved, but the large fleet that Ovando ordered to sea was almost entirely destroyed. Columbus must have felt that divine justice had been done. Not only did the two men he hated most, Bobadilla and Roldán, die at sea, but the ship carrying Columbus’s share of the wealth from the colony made it the entire way to Spain.
After the hurricane, Columbus sailed southwest, past Cuba, and into open seas until he reached Central America. Tortuous sailing conditions and violent storms along the coast took their toll on both the ships and on Columbus. The admiral, sick with rheumatism, fever, and bad eyesight, was bedridden much of the time. Unsuccessful in finding a passage to the Asian mainland, Columbus was forced to leave the area he called Veragua (Panama). Skirmishes with the locals, intense storms, and damaged ships meant that he had to head back to Hispaniola. It was December 1502.
One ship was lost on the coast of Panama and another at sea to sea worms (small mollusks). Consequently, 130 men were forced to crowd onto the remaining, barely sea-worthy, worm-riddled ships. Once at sea, realizing that Hispaniola was too far to reach in such condition, Columbus turned north to Jamaica, which he had discovered on his second voyage. The ships were in such bad condition that they were beached, worthy only of being used as protection from the islanders. Columbus remained marooned there with his men for over a year. Half of the men mutinied when Columbus tried to instill order and discipline. A second problem surfaced that was potentially more disastrous: Tired of dealing with the Spaniards, the islanders stopped supplying them with food. In response, Columbus came up with an ingenious trick. Having an almanac with him, he threatened to punish the islanders by taking light away from the Moon. On the night of February 29, 1504, when the Moon began to disappear because of a lunar eclipse, the islanders became alarmed and agreed to reestablish trade with the Spaniards. The Europeans, however, were still stranded on the island.
One loyal and brave sailor, Diego Méndez de Salcedo, who had protected the life of Columbus on other occasions, agreed to try to cross the open channel by canoe to reach Hispaniola, a nearly impossible feat. The island was over 160 km (100 mi) away, and Santo Domingo, home of Governor Ovando, was almost 480 km (300 mi). In five days Méndez and one other sailor made it to Hispaniola in two canoes paddled by islanders. After finding Ovando on a mission inland, the men were kept waiting seven months before a ship was sent to check on their story. The rescue ship did not arrive until the end of July, and the shipwrecked sailors did not arrive in Santo Domingo until August 13. Not feeling welcome in the city, on September 12, 1504, Columbus took his last voyage across the ocean, this time as a passenger. On November 7 he, his son, and his brother arrived in Spain.
X LAST DAYS
By the time the admiral returned to Spain, Queen Isabella was gravely ill, and she died on November 26, 1504, shortly after his arrival. Weakened by rheumatism, exposure, and years of bad food, Columbus was very ill as well, and he spent many months in Sevilla recuperating at the monastery of Las Cuevas. Over the next year and a half until his death, Columbus tried to regain his lost titles of governor and viceroy. He wrote letters, petitioned the crown, and persuaded others to intercede on his behalf. When he was well enough, he followed the court of King Ferdinand to several cities in Spain, hoping to see the king. In May 1505 King Ferdinand finally granted Columbus an audience in which the explorer was allowed to present his claims to his titles and the riches of the Indies. His titles were not returned, but the king did allow for arbitration regarding his financial claims. In the end, Columbus’s share was confirmed at 2 percent of the riches of the Indies, a considerable amount. Combined with the fact that Columbus already had a coat of arms and noble status, this afforded the Columbus family a lifestyle equal to that of the richest nobility in Spain.
In late 1505 Columbus became too ill to travel any more. He remained in the city of Valladolid until his death. On May 20, 1506, both of his sons, his brother Bartholomew, and his faithful friend Diego Méndez were at his side when the admiral murmured “Into thy hands, O Lord, I commit my spirit” and passed away. His body was buried initially in Valladolid, but in 1509 his son Diego transferred the remains to the monastery of Las Cuevas in Sevilla. The current location of Columbus’s remains is still debated. They were moved to the Americas in the middle of the 16th century, first to Santo Domingo and then, in 1795, to Havana, Cuba. Then his remains supposedly traveled back to Spain in 1899 where, it is claimed, they are interred in the Cathedral of Sevilla.
Long after the death of Columbus, his family struggled to have his titles reinstated and his honor restored. This struggle resulted in a small victory in 1509 when Diego became governor of Hispaniola. What seems to be the greatest injustice of all, however, is that the new lands that Columbus discovered were never given his name. That honor fell to a fellow Italian, Amerigo Vespucci, from the city of Florence, who explored the southern and eastern coasts of South America around 1500.
XI LEGACY
To exaggerate the historical significance of Christopher Columbus is difficult. Extraordinary changes resulted from his voyages. Although he failed to find a new route to Asia, Columbus made the lands and peoples of the western hemisphere known to Europeans, setting in motion a chain of events that altered human history on a global scale. The interactions Columbus initiated between the peoples of Europe and the Americas led to what scholars refer to as the Columbian Exchange, the two-way transfers of diseases, plants, animals, and cultures that followed Columbus’s voyages.
European diseases such as diphtheria, measles, smallpox, and malaria devastated the indigenous American population, which previously had not been exposed to them. At the same time, however, the Americas received European crops, such as wheat, rice, coffee, bananas, and olives; and animals, including horses, cows, pigs, and chickens. The Americas, in turn, contributed a virulent form of syphilis to Europe as well as important crops, such as corn, potatoes, tomatoes, lima beans, squash, peanuts, cassava, cacao, and pineapple.
Besides facilitating the exchange of disease, Columbus’s discoveries had another dark side. The societies of the indigenous inhabitants of the Americas seemed primitive to the Europeans, and the Europeans formed an image of them as “barbarians” that, unfortunately, persisted. The Europeans simply could not see, or did not wish to see, the complexities and cultural importance of the indigenous societies. European settlers in the Americas cared little or not at all for indigenous culture and saw the local population as nothing more than a slave labor force. As a result, indigenous cultures—as well as indigenous peoples—began to disappear as the European invaders advanced. Disease, forced labor, invasion, and conquest inflicted by the Europeans caused the deaths of millions of American indigenous peoples, in what can only be described as one of the greatest tragedies of all time.